CHAPTER II.

THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF CASTE.

'He hath made of one blood all nations of men, for to dwell on all the face of the earth.'-Acts xvii. 26.

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Ir may without doubt be asserted that the Aryans originally knew nothing of caste; indeed, it may be questioned whether, at the time of their invasion of India, they had any clearly marked social distinctions at all. The term Aryan, though it came to bear the sense of noble,' seems to be derived from a root indicating to plough.' Agricultural pursuits, along with pastoral, appear to have been the leading feature in the life of the early Aryans. When, in process of time, they extended their territory over the smiling plains of Hindustan, and found themselves in possession of a soil far more fertile than that which their forefathers had cultivated on the heights of Central Asia, they naturally devoted themselves with increased zest to their favourite avocation; so that in the early Hindu period, they might well be described as a nation of agriculturists. It is a curious instance of the perverted view of things which caste introduced, that, as that system grew, the once-honoured profession was more and more depreciated, until at length it was regarded as a pursuit in which only an inferior caste would be employed.2

1 The word caste seems to be derived from the Portuguese term casta, race. The earliest Sanscrit word employed to define the thing signified was varna, colour. The use of this term would appear to imply that, in the primitive conception of caste, the varying lines of complexion were in some way taken into account. As the scheme came to be more fully developed the word jati, birth, took the place of varna.

2 According to Manu other considerations ministered to the same result. He

The reader will not need to be told that the prodigious system of which we are going to speak did not spring up in a day; it was a matter of growth and gradual development. Probably the first lineaments of that system consisted of nothing more than those social distinctions between classes which, as a matter of course, grew up as society assumed an orderly and settled aspect; the necessities of civilised life would call into being a variety of professions; some of these would be more noted and influential than the rest; individual talent also would play its part in furthering those distinctions; superior mental power would necessarily bestow upon its possessors a primacy amongst their fellows. In this way the sages of the community would naturally elbow their way to the front rank. Especially would this be the case amongst a people with such strong religious instincts as marked the early Hindus; their very yearnings for guidance and increased spiritual light would incline them readily to concede the prominence which the learned class would not be slow to claim. Herein we may note the germ of the great Brahmanical order which was ultimately to monopolise the power and enjoy the homage of every other class. Probably for some ages after the Aryans settled in India, they governed themselves, and conducted their worship on the patriarchal principle; no distinct fraternity of priests figured amongst them, but the increase and dispersion of the population, together with the elaboration of their religious observances, which certainly did take place at an early period, would suggest the propriety and convenience of a sacerdotal class. Who then so well fitted for the sacred office as those who already enjoyed intellectual supremacy over their fellows? Thus a portion of the class above described would naturally find their way to the altars,

says: Some think that agriculture is an excellent thing, but it is a mode of existence blamed by the good, because the iron-mouthed ploughshare wounds the earth and the creatures living in it.'

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as naturally would they come to feel their power and set themselves to advance their order. The already complex system of religion rapidly became more complicated: so intricate and numerous did the prescribed rites become, that not fewer than sixteen different orders of priests were required to perform the necessary offices.1

The word Brahman comes from a term signifying prayer or sacred rite; in all probability the functions of the priests suggested the name of the class from which they were drawn. In the caste system which was ultimately developed, the order next in rank to the Brahmans was that of the Kshatriyas, or military caste; their name is derived from a word implying dominion. Though they follow the Brahmans in the order of caste, it ought not to be inferred that they were second in order of time, or indeed of influence. It is obvious that almost from the beginning of the Aryan immigration the need of a fighting class would be felt; if not on the banks of the Indus, yet certainly, as the invaders advanced into the country, they would be opposed by the barbarous hordes then in possession of the land. Recurring assaults from those wild tribes would lead to the segregation of a body of men with leisure and taste to cultivate the profession of arms. The fact that the existence of all other classes, the peaceful performance of religious ordinances, the protection of agricultural interests, and the prosecution of commercial enterprise depended upon the courage and skill of the Kshatriyas, would necessarily stamp them with dignity and importance. Accordingly in the earliest Vedic hymns we find them described as Rajanya, "the kingly class.' Anxious as the Brahmans were to establish their supremacy over their fellows-a point which in the long run they completely achieved-they were obliged to concede

As an illustration of the extremely elaborate character of some of their earliest functions, it may be mentioned that one sacrifice alone-the Agnishtoma -required the services of sixteen priests, and occupied in its celebration five whole days.

the interdependence which bound them and their fighting brethren together. Manu, though speaking as a Brahman, says: 'A Kshatriya cannot thrive without a Brahman, nor a Brahman without a Kshatriya. The Brahman and the Kshatriya, when associated together, prosper in this world and the next.'

The Vaisyas constituted the third of the four great sections into which caste divided the Hindu family; yet the Vaisyas existed as a defined class in the social scale long before caste set its brand upon them. They were the cultivators of the soil; their name implies those who settle down.' It is easy to conceive how they came to inherit this definition; those of their brethren who represented the two foregoing classes might indulge their migratory habits, but the pursuit of husbandry necessitates a settled mode of life; the Vaisyas therefore remained on their homesteads, and no doubt gradually acquired hereditary rights in the lands which they tilled. According to Manu, those of this class who preferred merchandise to agriculture were perfectly free to follow their taste. commonwealth consisted of the other classes relied for support. and helpfulness governed in a very especial way the three great classes spoken of; no one section could say to the other, 'I have no need of you.' Doubtless the Vaisyas might have existed without the Brahmans, but these could not do without the Vaisyas, whilst neither the one nor the other could have maintained their footing without the Kshatriyas. The Brahmans, with good judgment and sound policy, when they worked out their caste system, administered a pleasant sop to each of the other sections; they permitted them along with themselves to wear a sacred thread and bear the appellation of Dwija, twiceborn.' birth.

Thus this section of the Hindu great producers, on whom all The law of mutual dependence

The investiture with that thread was accounted a second

The three classes of the Aryan community above described represented three ideas and supplied three wants; these were

instruction, protection, support. But manifestly the need of a fourth and a servile class would be experienced, and in some way or other it had to be supplied; a variety of menial and domestic offices had to be performed which the twice-born' would naturally shrink from. Thus came into being the fourth order of society, which afterwards, under the name of Sudra, constituted the lowest class in the caste system.

Attempts have been made to derive the word Sudra from some Sanscrit root, but they have not been successful; there can be little doubt that the term describes a pre-Aryan race or races, which, after being subjugated by the Aryans, were pressed into their service. In all probability these were the same as the Hudrakoi spoken of by Herodotus; and, as in Europe the fact of numbers of the Sclavonic race being reduced to bondage and servitude gave birth to the word slave as descriptive of the whole class of bondmen, so did this word become a generic term for those portions of the conquered aborigines who became incorporated into the social system of the Hindus. Their ultimate recognition in the caste scheme evolved by the Brahmans was another illustration of the far-seeing policy which ruled the deliberations of the learned class; the relegation of the vanquished serfs to the position of a distinct though an inferior caste would naturally tend to obliterate their ancestral ties and sympathies, and to attach them to the religion and persons of their rulers. But though they were thus pacified and flattered, the utmost care was taken to perpetuate their condition of servitude, for only in this condition could they be useful to their lords. Accordingly no sacred thread was ever allowed to rest on their shoulders; they were ever to be regarded as the once-born' only; nor could they ever hope to rise to twice-born' dignities. As a matter of course the natural pride and jealousy of their twice-born' superiors tended more and more to their depression; a very hard and fast line severed between them and their more favoured brethren; for brethren, perhaps, they might call