the present day. Yet it is a point of some practical importance that such a theory exists; it is one of many instances in which Hinduism furnishes arguments whereby the system itself may be assailed.

On a review of this whole subject certain convictions force themselves upon us. The first impression is, that caste is a thing positively unique; there is nothing in any country with whose history we are familiar, ancient or modern, with which it can be compared: it has a social element, but it is not a social distinction; it has a religious element, but it is hardly a religious institution; it finds its sanction in a religious idea, inasmuch as Brahma is said to have been its author, but it lives on irrespective of religious faith or observance.

Another impression must have struck the reader-that such an institution must necessarily constitute a formidable drawback to those who are trammeled by it. It operates as a deterrent to progress of every kind; it dissipates all aspirations to rise in the lower ranks of society and fosters a spirit of selfish arrogance in the upper; it destroys mutual sympathy, and renders impossible a healthy combination of classes for the common weal; it sets its ban upon commercial enterprise and foreign travel; no Hindu can cross the sea without imperilling his caste. Not very long ago a native judge was asked by the Bombay Government to proceed to England at the public expense, to give evidence before the Finance Committee of the House of Commons. His reply was, 'I think it would be a farce in me to appear as a witness and at the expense of the public, when a considerable and intelligent part of that public not only disapproves of my doing so, but is sure to persecute me by excommunication, against which no human ingenuity

Practically, the prospect of retribution or recompense in a future birth is inoperative we believe you might search in vain for a Brahman or Sudra who modifies his present conduct in any degree from a regard to the degradation or elevation which may ensue in a future state of existence.

in India has yet devised a remedy, and no law of the land or earthly power can give any protection.' 1

Of all the obstacles to the evangelisation of India, this is by far the most formidable. The subtlety of the Pundits, the philosophy of the Sages, the hereditary attachment of the people to their ancient creed, though real and serious difficulties, are trifling compared with this terrible obstruction; all these may be overborne, these, as the outworks, may be effectually stormed and carried, but the dread form of caste, like an all-but invulnerable barrier, rises to the view, and arrests the tide of conquest. The judgment may be convinced, the heart impressed, but the fearful consequences of decision stare the individual in the face, and no wonder that he falters. The higher his caste, the heavier the cross which threatens him. To be loathed by all who once loved him, to be mourned for as dead by her who bore him, to have the finger of scorn pointed at him by all his associates, to be doomed for life to social ostracism as a polluted thing, is the penalty of conversion which caste inflicts; truly the marvel is not that so few, but that so many, have had strength and courage to avow their convictions at such a cost.

It is an undoubted fact, that although, as we have said, a mere belief in Christianity leaves caste unaffected, the event of a man's baptism brings upon him the dire penalty above specified; he is, ipso facto, outcasted. This is curious when we bear

1 The Indu Prokash, a Hindu organ, in commenting on the above case, gives vent to its indignation in the following burning words :- The tyranny of caste extends from the most trifling to the most important affairs of Hindu life. It cripples the independent action of individuals, sows the seed of bitter discord between the different sections of society, encourages the most abominable practices, and dries up all the springs of that social, moral, and intellectual freedom which alone can secure greatness, whether to individuals or nations. It has pampered the pride and insolence of the Brahmans, by teaching them to look upon themselves, notwithstanding all their weaknesses, as the favourites of gods, nay, the very gods on earth who are to keep the lower orders in a state of utter degradation and illiterate servitude. Such is our caste system; so unjustifiable in principle, so unfair in organisation, and so baneful in its consequences to the highest interests of the country.' Strange protest from the pen of a Hindu! but this is only the articulate breathing of a growing repugnance felt by the educated classes towards such an unnatural and monstrous system; multitudes who lack courage thus to denounce the evil do in their heart of hearts long for its overthrow.

in mind that this act does not in itself involve any transgression of caste rules; the convert may never eat forbidden food, may contract no forbidden marriage or any ceremonial uncleanness, but the water of baptism is, by common consent, regarded as destructive of caste.1 Consequently it is no uncommon thing for a Hindu father to be utterly unmoved by his son's heterodoxy so long as he keeps aloof from that ordinance; but let the son determine to avow his faith in that solemn rite, and immediately, not the father only, but all that belong to him are frantic with excitement, and move heaven and earth to prevent the execution of the design. If fair means will not suffice, then too often foul means are resorted to; forced confinement, and cruel stripes are tried. Should these fail, then-alas! we speak of the things which we know too well-a diabolical attempt to deprave the morals of the youth may follow, for it is quite understood that sensuality and Christianity have nothing in common, and that a victory on the side of the former is likely to ensure a breach with the latter.2 Should this foul scheme fail, then it is quite within the bounds of possibility that, to save the family from the dire disgrace foreboded, the victim of this persecution may be drugged so as to destroy his intellect, if not his life.

1 This is at least the case in North India. We have repeatedly seen illustrations of this kind. It has been our rule to keep back enquirers from any overt transgression of caste rules up to the time of their baptism; our object has been to remove any ground for their repudiation by their friends; we have then, immediately after baptism, sent them back to their families; in no single instance, however, have they been received. In one case a father, an educated and liberalminded man, was wishful to retain his baptised son in his house, but the prejudices of his friends and neighbours were too strong for him; he had to accept the painful alternative of casting out his Christian son or of being outcasted with his whole family. With bitter tears he made the former, as the least terrible sacrifice.

2 This kind of involuntary homage to the superior morality of Christianity is shown in many ways by the people of India; there can be no doubt that an impression is all but universal that Christianity is a holier thing than Hinduism. Such an impression, even on a darkened conscience, must have a certain moral weight. Those who are familiar with early Church history will at once recall parallel instances to the above revolting form of temptation and trial.

Such is caste! What more terrible source of evil, what more formidable deterrent of good could be conceived of? No wonder that Sir William Jones, three quarters of a century ago, avowed his conviction that no Brahman would ever be converted; that great Orientalist formed this opinion from a view of the caste difficulty. It is an assuring and comforting circumstance that we have lived to see the day when converted Brahmans may be reckoned by scores; we are privileged moreover to discern what that great man never dreamt of, the slow but certain disintegration of that mighty system of thraldom; as we shall see hereafter, not one or two, but manifold agencies are working together for its dissolution. He who is wonderful in operation and wise in counsel is smiting it, as it were, with an unseen hand. Already one short but telling account may be given of it—it is dying, yet it lives; lives on the credulity of the ignorant and the sufferance of the educated; but knowledge is power, and knowledge is spreading; ignorance is darkness, and darkness is receding-ergo, its days are numbered.

CHAPTER III.

EARLY HINDUISM.

'Who in times past suffered all nations to walk in their own ways; nevertheless He left not himself without witness.'-Acts xiv. 16, 17.

OUR last chapter may be regarded as in some degree proleptical, for, chronologically, the development of caste falls within the era of the present chapter; still, as that institution cannot fairly be regarded as a necessary outcome of early Hinduism, but rather as a huge excrescence which grew up side by side with it, it seemed desirable, considering its surpassing and peculiar importance, to accord to it an independent and separate discussion.

It has been said with great truth that the early history of the Hindus is a religious history; religion is a more prominent feature in their early records than is the case with any other nation; nor will it be denied by those who have compared the people of India in this respect, with other peoples, that they are pre-eminent for the religious instinct which has at all times marked them. It has often struck us that if St. Paul had preached in India, he would have applied to the Hindus with especial emphasis the commendatory epithet which he addressed to the Athenians; indeed, if he declared the latter to be very religious' he would probably have described the former as

The rendering of the word used by St. Paul (Acts xvii. 22) as 'too superstitious,' is certainly unfortunate; deioidaiuwv simply means reverencing the gods.' Paul uses the comparative of the word because, as he goes on to argue, the Athenians had not been content to worship their known gods, but had set up an altar to an unknown god besides. This felicitous adaptation of a local object, this skilful and conciliatory mode of address, are thoroughly in keeping with the Apostle's ordinary mode of speaking and writing, and may furnish an example which modern missionaries will do well to copy.