IXION; a king of Thessaly, son of Phlegyas, or of Leontes, or, according to Diodorus, of Antion by Perimela, daughter of Amythaon. He married Dia, daughter of Deioneus, and promised his father-in-law a valuable present for the choice he had made of him to be his daughter's husband. His unwillingness to fulfil his promises, obliged Deioneus to have recourse to violence, and he stole away some of Ixion's horses. Ixion concealed his resentment, invited his fatherin-law to a feast at Larissa, the capital of his kingdom, and, when Deioneus was come according to the appointment, he threw him into a pit, which he had previously filled with wood and burning coals. This treachery so irritated the neighboring princes, that all of them refused to perform the usual ceremony, by which a man was then purified of murder, and Ixion was shunned by all mankind. Jupiter had compassion upon him, and placed him at the table of the gods. Ixion became enamored of Juno, and attempted to seduce her. Juno was willing to gratify the passion of Ixion, or, according to some, she informed Jupiter of the attempts which had been made upon her virtue. Jupiter made a cloud in the shape of Juno, and carried it to the place where Ixion had appointed to meet Juno. Ixion was caught in the snare, and from his embrace with the cloud, he had the Centaurs. (See Centaurs.) Jupiter banished him from heaven; but when he heard that he had the rashness to boast that he had seduced Juno, the god struck him

with his thunder, and ordered Mercury to tie him to a wheel in hell, which continually whirls round. The wheel was perpetually in motion; therefore the punishment of Ixion was eternal.

IYNX; daughter of Pan and Echo, or of Peitho (the Suada of the Romans). She inveigled Jupiter into his intrigue with Io. As a punishment, Juno changed her into a bird, called the wry-neck (lynx torquilla), which still possessed the power of exciting love. When it became desirable that Medea should be enamored of Jason, Venus gave the hero the magic iynx, and instructed him how to use it in order to inspire Medea with a passion for him. From this time, the iynx became a part of the love-spells among the Greeks. The enchantress tied the bird to a four-spoked wheel, which she turned while she muttered her incantations; or, according to some traditions, she only stretched upon the wheel the entrails of the wry-neck. Another method was, to consume the bird over the coals, on a wheel of wax. The magic wheel was also called iynx, because the bird or its entrails were extended upon it. It is sometimes used as a symbol of the art of exciting love in general, and more particularly of unchaste love. In the sequel, the signification of the word ynr became different; and it was extended to every charm in poetry and music. In this sense, the iynx went under the name of the nightingale; and it is thus represented on the monument of Sophocles, and in the temple of the Pythian Apollo.

J; the tenth letter, and seventh consonant, of the English alphabet. The character designates very different sounds in the different languages. In English, according to Mr. Webster, it represents the sound dzh or edzh. It has, in fact, the same sound as g in Giles. In French, it is always sounded like the French g before e and i. In German, it has the sound of the English y in you. In Italian, it is always a vowel (long i), and the character j is now little used by Italian printers, except at the end of words, for ii. In Spanish, it is guttural, a little softer than the

German ch in ach. How nearly the sounds which are expressed by j are related, has been shown in the article G; and, in the article I, it is mentioned, that i before another vowel naturally becomes the German j. (For other observations, also relating to j, see the article I.) Though the character j is very ancient, it is only in recent times that it has been taken for a consonant, and still more recent is its separation from i in dictionaries. In France, the use of j for the consonant, and i for the vowel, was not established in the middle of the 17th century. Among other

nations, the mixture continued later. James Pelletier, of Mans, is said to have first placed the j at the beginning of words which began with this consonant, in his French Grammar (1550). Gille Beys, printer in Paris, imitated him in 1584. In regard to the separation of words beginning with the two letters, in dictionaries, the editors of the French Grande Encyclopédie, printed in 1765, did not dare to make it; and English dictionaries, even at the present day, are too of ten disfigured by the mixing together of I and J, as well as U and V. The Encyclopédie Moderne calls j a lettre proprement Française. The other nations adopted it from the French. The Romans, in inscriptions and legends of medals, wrote all words which we write with a j, as Jupiter, Justinus, with an i, as Iupiter, Iustinus. Yet the character j existed several centuries before the fall of the Roman republic. The Greeks had it not.

JABLONSKY; the name of several learn ed Germans.-Daniel Ernest was born at Dantzic, in 1660; became a minister in Magdeburg; in 1686, rector of the gymnasium at Lissa; in 1690, pastor in Königsberg, and went afterwards to Berlin, where he died, in 1742, being then bishop or senior of the Bohemian Brethren in Prussia (Proper) and Great Poland. He endeavored to unite the Lutherans and Calvinists. Through queen Anne of England, he received the dignity of doctor of divinity, from the university of Oxford. He published a number of sermons and several learned works on theology; among which are his Biblia Hebraica cum Notis Hebr. (Berlin, 1699); Jura et Libertates Dissidentium in Polonia; Oppressorum in Polonia Evangel. Desideria.-His brother, John Theodore, was likewise an author.Paul Ernest, son of John, born at Berlin, 1693, was appointed professor of theology and preacher at Frankfort on the Oder, where he died, 1757. He wrote many works: Disquisitio de Lingua Lycaonica (Berlin, 1714, 2d edit., 1724); Exercitatio de Nestorianismo (ib., 1724); Remphah Egyptiorum Deus ab Israelitis in Deserto cultus (Frankfort, 1731); Dissertationes VIII de Terra-Gosen (ib., 1715, 1736, 4to.); Pantheon Egyptiorum sive de Diis eorum Commentarius (3 vols., ib., 1750-52); De Memnone Græcorum et Ægyptiorum (ib., 1753, 4to., with engravings); Opuscula ed. J. G. Waler (4 vols., Leyden, 1804 to 1813). -Charles Gustavus; a naturalist, born 1756, and died at Berlin, 1787, while secretary to the queen of Prussia; particularly known by the work commenced by 13

VOL. VII.

him-Natural System of all known native and foreign Insects, as a Continuation of Buffon's Natural History-of which, however, he executed only vol. 1, the Beetles (Berlin, 1783), and vols. 1 and 2, the Butterflies (ib., 1783 and 1784). It was continued and finished by T. F. W. Herbst.

JACAMAR (galbula, Brisson). These brilliant birds are nearly connected with the kingfishers, from which, however, they differ by the form of their beak and feet. Their plumage has a metallic lustre, which it is almost impossible to imitate by art. They live in damp woods, and feed on insects. Most if not all the true jacamars, are natives of tropical America. There are several species found in India, having a shorter and stouter beak, to which Le Vaillant has given the generic name of jacamerops.

JACK. Mr. Tyrwhitt, in his note upon v. 14,816 of Chaucer, says, “I know not how it has happened that, in the principal modern languages, John, or its equivalent, is a name of contempt, or at least of slight. So the Italians use Gianni, from whence zani; the Spaniards, Juan, as bobo Juan, or foolish John; the French, Jean, with various additions; and in English, when we call a man a John, we do not mean it as a title of honor. Chaucer, in v. 3708, uses Jack-fool as the Spaniards do bobo Juan, and I suppose Jackass has the same etymology." To this we will add, that the Germans use Hans, their nickname of John, for the same purpose; as, Hans narr, Jack-fool; dummer Hans, stupid Jack, &c. Pennant also, in his Zoology (iii. 342), remarks, "It is very singular that most nations give the name of their favorite dish to the facetious attendant on mountebanks. Thus the Dutch call him Pickle herring; the Italians, Macaroni; the French, Jean potage; the Germans, Hans wurst, i. e. Jack-sausage; and the English give him the title of Jack-pudding. The name of Jack Ketch seems to have become permanently generic for the common hangman.-The names of the boot jack and roasting jack are derived by Watts, in his Logic, from the circumstance that boys (who of course often had the common name Jack) were formerly employed to pull off boots and to turn spits; and when instruments were invented for these purposes, the common name of the boys was given them in sport. -The common roasting jack consists of a double set of wheels, a barrel, round which the rope fastened to the pulleys is wound, a perpetual screw, and a

fly. Occasionally there is added a multiplying wheel, round which the rope is first wound, before it passes upon the barrel. As this wheel is considerably larger than the barrel, the jack is proportionably longer in running down.-The smoke jack is moved by a fan placed horizontally in the chimney, and, being carried about perpetually, by the draught of the fire, requires no machinery for winding it up. Spiral flyers, coiling about a vertical axle, are sometimes used, and occasionally a vertical wheel, with sails like the float-boards of a mill.-Jack is also used for a coat of mail, and likewise for the garment worn over it.—Jack boots are large boots to cover and protect the legs.-Jack is also used for a horse or wooden frame to saw timber upon; for a great leathern pitcher, in which drink was formerly put; for the small bowl that serves as a mark at the exercise of bowling; and for a young pike.-Jack, in sea language, is a sort of flag displayed from a mast erected at the outer end of a ship's bowsprit.

JACKAL (canis aureus, Lin.). There is no essential difference between the dog and the jackal, as they will breed together, producing prolific offspring. This species of quadrupeds is very widely extended throughout the warmer regions of the old world. It is found in Africa, from Barbary to the cape of Good Hope; in Syria, in Persia, and throughout all southern Asia. It is about two feet and a half in length, and about 14 inches in height; the length of the tail, about eight inches; the eyes are small; the tail bushy; the head, neck, sides of the belly, thighs, and outer part of the limbs and ears, of a dirty yellow; underneath and on the sides of the lower jaw, the end of the upper lip, under the neck and belly, and the inner surface of the limbs, somewhat white; the back and sides of the body, to the tail, of a gray-yellow, which is abruptly divided from the surrounding lighter colors; the tail, a mixture of yellow and black hair, the black prevailing at the extremity; the muzzle and nails black. All travellers who have been in the countries where the jackals are found, mention the ravages they commit, and their dreadful nocturnal cries, which, answered as they are by all their companions, produce the most appalling effects. Their voice has often been described as more terrific than the howl of the hyæna or the roar of the tiger, and deprives of repose all hearers who have not been long accustomed to it. The jackal can be tamed with tolerable

facility, but always preserves an extreme timidity, which he manifests by concealing himself on hearing the slightest unusual sound, or at the sight of a person whom he is unaccustomed to. This fear is different from that of most wild animals, and he closely resembles a dog in fear of chastisement, for he will offer no resistance when he is touched. The most celebrated commentators on the Bible consider that the 300 animals, to whose tails Samson tied firebrands, were jackals. This opinion is grounded on the great number of these animals found in Syria, and on their assembling in large packs; whereas the fox is comparatively scarce, and is always solitary. The jackal has been popularly termed the lion's provider, from an opinion that it rouses the prey for that quadruped. The fact appears to be, that every creature in the forest is set in motion by the fearful cries of the jackals; the lion and other beasts of prey, by a sort of instinct and the call of appetite, attend the chase, and seize such timid animals as betake themselves to flight at the noise of this nightly pack. Buffon gives the following character of the jackal: "It unites the impudence of the dog with the cowardice of the wolf, and, participating in the nature of each, is an odious creature, composed of all the bad qualities of both."

JACKDAW (corvus monedula, Lin.). This bird is one of the crow kind, and has been celebrated for his copious vocabulary and garrulous habits. It is about 13 inches in length, with black bill; white eyes; the hinder part of the head and neck of a hoary-gray color; the rest of the plumage, of a rich glossy black above; beneath, dusky; the legs are black. The jackdaw is very common in England, where it remains the whole year; in France, and various other parts of the continent of Europe, it is migratory. It is gregarious, frequenting old towers and ruins, where it builds its nests. The female lays five or six eggs, of a greenish color, and is exceedingly assiduous in her attention to the young after they are hatched. These birds principally live on worms and the larvæ of insects, but they also appear to be capable of taking fish. Bingley states that he was witness to an instance where a jackdaw was very successful in this mode of obtaining food. It is easily tamed, and may be taught to pronounce many words with little difficulty. The jackdaws are notorious thieves, not only stealing food, but appearing to be particularly fond of shining substances, as money, &c., and have frequently occasioned sus

mother's_womb, he quarrelled with his brother Esau, whom he held by the heel as he came into the world. Hence his name, Jacob (heel-holder). Being the object of maternal indulgence, he was gentle and weak, and was disposed to advance himself by cunning rather than by courage. While a youth, he purchased of his brother (who returned home weary and hungry from the chase) his birthright for a mess of pottage, and, at the instigation of his mother, disguised like Esau, he obtained from the blind and infirm Isaac, the blessing of the first-born, on which depended the inheritance of the promise made to Abraham. He was obliged to flee from the anger of his brother; and, on his way to Laban, his mother's brother, he received the first intimation that the inheritance of the divine promise had devolved on him. He saw in a dream a ladder reaching from heaven to earth, and angels ascending and descending upon it, and the guardian God of his family, whom he supposed to be in the tent of Isaac, conferred on him the blessing of Abraham. After this vision, he firmly believed that Jehovah had chosen him to be the father of a great people. This belief, and the love of Laban's daughter Rachel, were his consolation during the bitter years which he was obliged to devote to the flocks of his uncle, in order to obtain his mistress. After having served seven years, he found in his veiled bride Leah (whom he did not love), the elder sister of Rachel, and, in order to obtain Rachel, he was obliged to serve seven years more. Besides these 14 years, he served six years for a herd, and, after having repaid the deceit of his father-in-law, by an artifice which much increased his possessions (Gen. xxx. 2743), he departed privately with his wives and children and property. Laban pursued him, and scarcely had Jacob appeased him, when, after 20 years' absence from home, he met the followers of his brother Esau. In this dilemma, Jacob sought relief in prayer, and a man wrestled with him all night until the morning dawned. Jacob came off victorious, though with a lame thigh, and he was called by his guardian God, whose hand he saw in this event, Israel, i. e. the hero of God, in remembrance of the contest. This afterwards became the title of his house, and the Hebrews (q. v.), from him, are called Israelites, i. e. strong and stout. Jacob now went forth with more confidence to the much dreaded meeting with his brother, and appeased his rough, but noble nature, by his submission. His

return to his father's tent made a great change in the character of Jacob. His cunning and avarice appeared to him, as it has since to his descendants, the necessary means for making his way through the difficulties of his dependent situation. Now that he had become rich, and uncontrolled master of his possessions, he showed himself worthy of his father; and if he did not resemble Abraham in greatness and power, he did in piety and tender love for his children. Yet through them he was destined to suffer the greatest afflictions. As he had two lawful wives, and, according to the custom of the country, two concubines (Bilhah and Zilpah), with 12 sons and a daughter, he could not escape domestic troubles and dissensions. His beloved Rachel died soon after his return home. A prince of the Hivites violated his daughter Dinah, and his sons revenged the injury by plundering and murdering that people. He could neither prevent this nor the incest committed by Reuben with Bilhah. Humiliation and repentance for the sins of his youth seemed now his lot. But his greatest affliction was the loss of his favorite son Joseph, whose brothers, full of envy against him, had sold him to a caravan of Ishmaelite merchants, and brought his coat, stained with blood, to their father, as a proof that he had been devoured by wild beasts. This event decided the destiny of the house of Israel. Joseph (q. v.) subsequently became, in consequence of his wisdom, the highest officer at the court of Pharaoh, and, in this capacity, recognised his brothers when they came to Egypt to purchase corn, pardoned them, and called the whole house of his father out of Canaan to dwell in a fruitful region of Egypt. The aged Jacob again embraced his favorite son, whom he had, for many years, supposed dead, and enjoyed, under his protection, a happy old age. A short time before his death, Israel collected his sons around his bed, and pronounced over each of them a blessing full of prophetic anticipations of the characters and future fate of his descendants. He bestowed the privileges of the firstborn on his fourth son, Judah, Reuben having forfeited them by the crime abovementioned, and Simeon and Levi by the murder of the Hivites. To his grandsons, Manasseh and Ephraim, the sons of Joseph, he gave privileges equal to those of his sons. The descendants of Judah composed the most powerful tribe among the Hebrews, who were hence called Jews. (q. v.) In conformity with Jacob's last