the commission of which is not punishable by the criminal law. An injunction may be obtained to stay waste, as where a tenant for life, or years, is proceeding to cut down timber which he has no right to cut; to prevent vexatious litigation in the courts of common law, as where a man persists in bringing actions to recover an estate, notwithstanding repeated failures; to enable a man to make a just defence, which he could not make at common law, as where the legal defence to a claim rests exclusively, or to a great degree, in the knowledge of the party advancing the claim; to prevent infringement of a copyright, or a patent, &c.

INJURIA (Latin), in law; properly, every act by which some one suffers unlawfully. In the Roman law, the obligations arising from such violations formed a class by themselves, which were regulated by the lex Aquilia, so called because the tribune Aquilius (in the sixth century, between the destruction of Carthage and Corinth, and during the beginning of the civil wars) had caused the law to be enacted. At a later period, the right to ask legal redress was also extended to a mere violation of the honor of a person; and, in the laws of modern nations, this has been retained, though with a great variety of views. In the middle ages, the duel was authorized by law; and, when the laws took from individuals the right of redressing their own wrongs, it was deemed necessary to offer some other mode of redressing injuries to honor, which had been one of the most fruitful sources of duels. The common law of England punishes injuries to honor only when they amount to malicious attempts to blacken a man's reputation (see Libel, and Slander); but according to the Prussian code, a person may be sued for having used insulting language, or even insulting gestures, on the mere ground of violation of honor, and not of any other damage inflicted thereby. But, of late, the right has been considerably restricted; for instance, the complaint must be entered within a short period fixed by law, &c. According to the laws of the German states, the petition of the complainant may be to have the amende honorable made him, as by an apology for the insult, &c., or to have the offender punished. Legislation and adjudication on injuries to honor are matters of much delicacy, beyond the limits of the English law, which makes reparation only in cases where the offence has produced, or is directly calculated to produce injury, to a man, in his character or business.

INK, WRITING. This material can be prepared of various colors, but black is the most common. Doctor Lewis gives the following receipt:-In three pints of white wine, or vinegar, let three ounces of gall-nuts, one ounce powdered logwood and one ounce green vitriol be steeped half an hour; then add 1 ounce gum Arabic, and, when the gum is dissolved, pass the whole mixture through a hairsieve. Van Mons recommended the following preparation :-Let four ounces gallnuts, 24 ounces sulphate of iron, calcined to whiteness, and two pints water, stand in a cool place 24 hours; then add 14 ounce gum Arabic, and keep it in a vessel open, or slightly stopped with paper. Another recipe is this:-Take one pound gallnuts, six ounces gum Arabic, six ounces sulphate of iron, and four pints beer, or water; the gall-nuts are broken, and stand as an infusion 24 hours; then coarselypounded gum is added, and suffered to dissolve; lastly, a quantity of vitriol is introduced, and the whole passed through a hair-sieve. It is generally observed, that unboiled inks are less likely to fade than others. A good red ink is obtained as follows:-A quarter of a pound of the best logwood is boiled with an ounce of pounded alum and the same quantity of cream of tartar, with half the quantity of water, and, while the preparation is still warm, sugar and good gum Arabic, of each one ounce, are dissolved in it. Solutions of indigo with pieces of alumina, and mixed with gum, form a blue ink. Green ink is obtained from verdigris, distilled with vinegar and mixed with a little gum. Saffron, alum, and gum water, form a yellow.-It is not well ascertained how soon the present kind of writing ink came into use. It has certainly been employed for many centuries in most European countries; but the ancient Roman inks were, for the most part, of a totally different composition, being made of some vegetable carbonaceous matter, like lamp-black, diffused in a liquor. The Chinese, and many of the inks used by the Oriental nations, are still of this kind. Sometimes the ink of very old writings is so much faded by time as to be illegible. Doctor Blagden (Philosophical Transactions, vol. 77), in his experiments on this subject, found that, in most of these, the color might be restored, or, rather, a new body of color given, by pencilling them over with a solution of prussiate of potash, and then with a dilute acid, either sulphuric or muriatic; or else, vice versa, first with the acid, and then with the prussiate. The acid dissolves the oxide

of iron of the faded ink, and the prussiate precipitates it again of a blue color, which restores the legibility of the writing. If this be done neatly, and blotting paper laid over the letters as fast as they become visible, their form will be retained very distinctly. Pencilling over the letters with an infusion of galls also restores the blackness, to a certain degree, but not so speedily, nor so completely.

China or Indian Ink. The well known and much admired Indian, or China ink, is brought over in small oblong cakes, which readily become diffused in water by rubbing, and the blackness remains suspended in it for a considerable time, owing to the extreme subtilty of division of the substance that gives the color, and the intimacy with which it is united to the mucilaginous matter that keeps it suspended. Indian ink does, however, deposit the whole of its color by standing, when it is diffused in a considerable quantity of water. Doctor Lewis, on examining this substance, found that the ink consisted of a black sediment, totally insoluble in water, which appeared to be of the nature of the finest lamp-black, and of another substance soluble in water, and which putrefied by keeping, and, when evaporated, left a tenacious jelly, exactly like glue, or isinglass. It appears probable, therefore, that it consists of nothing more than these two ingredients, and probably may be imitated with perfect accuracy by using a very fine jelly, like isinglass, or size, and the finest lamp-black, and incorporating them thoroughly. The finest lamp-black known is made from ivory shavings, and thence called ivory black.

Printers Ink. This is a very singular composition, partaking much of the nature of an oil varnish, but differing from it in the quality of adhering firmly to moistened paper, and in being, to a considerable degree, soluble in soap-water. It is, when used by the printers, of the consistence of rather thin jelly, so that it may be smeared over the types readily and thinly, when applied by leather cushions; and it dries very speedily on the paper, without running through to the other side, or passing the limits of the letter. It is made of nut-oil, boiled, and afterwards mixed with lamp-black, of which about two ounces and a half are sufficient for 16 ounces of the prepared oil. Other additions are made by ink-makers, of which the most important is generally understood to be a little fine indigo in powder, to improve the beauty of the color. Red printers' ink is made by adding to the varnish

Colored Inks. except red ink.

A lit

about half its weight of vermilion. tle carmine also improves the color. (Encyclopédie, Arts et Métiers, vol. iii, page 518.) Few of these are used, The preparation of these is very simple, consisting either of decoctions of the different coloring or dyeing materials in water, and thickened with gum Arabic, or of colored metallic oxides, or insoluble powders, merely diffused in gum-water. The proportion of gum Arabic to be used may be the same as for black writing ink. All that applies to the fixed or fugitive nature of the several articles used in dyeing, may be applied, in general, to the use of the same substance as inks. Most of the common water-color cakes, diffused in water, will make sufficiently good colored inks for most purposes.

Sympathetic Inks; liquids without any observable color; any thing may be written with them invisibly, and made visible at will by certain means. Even Ovid informed maidens who were closely watched, that they might write to their lovers whatever they pleased with fresh milk, and when dry sprinkle over it coal-dust, or soot. In modern times, chemistry has taught the preparation of many improved inks of this nature:-Form a solution of green vitriol in water, and add a little alum, to prevent the yellow iron precipitate from sinking, which always rises in case the acid does not prevail; this solution forms a sympathetic ink, which appears extremely black when it is moistened with a saturated infusion of gall-nuts. A sympathetic ink may likewise be formed from common black ink. For this purpose, the color must be destroyed by a mixture of nitric acid. Any thing written with it becomes visible on moistening it with a solution of some volatile alkali. The famous ink, invisible in the cold, and visible at a moderate temperature, may be prepared without much difficulty. (See Cobalt.) Any writing with this ink is invisible; but, on the application of a certain degree of heat, it becomes a beautiful greenish blue. As soon as it cools again, the color vanishes; and thus, by alternately heating and cooling it, the writing can be made visible or invisible. Care must be taken not to heat it more than is required to make it plain, for otherwise it always continues visible. With this sympathetic ink landscapes may be drawn, in which the trees and the earth lose their verdant appearance in the winter, but may be changed again into a spring landscape, at will, by exposing them to a

gentle heat. This has been already tried

on screens.

INLAND NAVIGATION.-American Canals. An account of canals, except those of America, is given under the article Canals. An account of river navigation will be found under the article Rivers, navigable. In the present article, a view will be given of American canal navigation, as it presents itself in 1831; beginning at the northerly part of the continent, and proceeding southerly. It is difficult to obtain exact information relating to the works of this description in America. The publications on the subject contain immense masses of matter, of very little interest or practical utility, and, at the same time, omit a definite description of the works themselves, and give a very imperfect account of the obstacles overcome in their construction, or the amount of business done upon them. Some of the works mentioned in the following list, as will be seen in the account of them, are merely projected, and others are not yet completed; and it is not easy, at the time of making this article, to ascertain, precisely, what degree of progress has been made in some of them; nor is it very important to do so, since the state of things is rapidly changing in this respect; insomuch, that what would be an exact account of some of them at the time of making this article, would cease to be such at the time of its publication.

CANALS OF CANADA.-Welland canal was constructed from 1824 to 1829. Its length is 413 miles; its breadth at the surface 58 feet, at the bottom 26 feet, and its depth 8 feet. This line of navigation passes from the mouth of Ouse river, on lake Erie, north-eastward, to strike at a point of the Welland or Chippeway river; and, taking the course of that river downwards, 11 miles, proceeds from thence northward, across the mountain ridge, and down to the mouth of Twelve-Mile creek, on lake Ontario. The distance from lake to lake is 43 miles. The deepest cutting, near the summit, is 56 feet. It has 35 locks, 125 to 100 feet long, 32 to 22 feet wide. The capital stock of the company is 200,000 pounds; the number of shares, 16,000. This canal admits of sloop navigation, and opens a communication between lake Erie and lake Ontario, in the same vessels which navigate those lakes, and saves discharging and reloading cargoes. One of the purposes of its construction was, to prevent the trade of that part of Upper Canada which communicates with the great western lakes, from

being diverted to New York, by the route of the Erie canal. It was an arduous and stupendous work, as appears sufficiently from the dimensions and length of the canal. Its execution was, however, faeilitated by taking advantage of natural channels of slack-water.-Rideau canal is a projected navigation for 122 miles, from Hull, on the great Ottawa, by the course of the river Rideau and a chain of lakes, to the Gannanoqui, on the St. Lawrence, at the Kingston mills, five miles from the city of Kingston. The plan of communication is calculated for sloop navigation. The expense, it is supposed, may amount to £1,000,000.-La Chine canal is 10 miles in length, from Montreal, on the St. Lawrence, directly to Upper La Chine, on lake St. Louis, cutting off a bend in the river, and avoiding the rapids of St. Louis. Cost, £220,000; for sloop navigation.-L'Isle Perrault canal is a projected work of five miles in length, from St. Louis lake, at the foot of St. Anne's rapids, to the head thereof, by a canal passing either at the back of St. Anne's, or else across the Isle Perrault.Grenville canal is a projected work of 12 miles in length, from the head of Long Sault or Ottawa falls, at the village of Grenville, by a lateral canal, to the foot of Carillon rapids, opposite Point Fortune ; for sloop navigation. Estimated cost, £250,000.-La Petite Nation canal is a projected artificial channel of navigation, of 50 miles in length, from the foot of Carillon rapids, at Hawkesbury, on the Ottawa, across the peninsula, to the St. Lawrence, at Prescott.

Im

CANALS OF THE UNITED STATES. mense improvements have been made in inland navigation, both by rivers and canals, during the 15 years from 1816 to 1831. More than 1000 miles of canal have been made during that time, besides vast improvements in river navigation; and, in 1831, the numerous works of this sort, already commenced, are prosecuted with unremitted activity. Only a very general outline of these improvements, so important, both in a political and economical view, can be given in this work.

Canals in New England.-Cumberland and Oxford canal. This navigation, partly natural and partly artificial, extends about 50 miles, from Portland to Sebago pond, in Maine. The head of the canal is in the town of Bridgeton, at the termination of Long pond, which is 10 miles in length. This pond, together with Brandy pond and Sebago pond, with their outlets, constitutes 27 miles of the ca

nal; 24 locks only are necessary. Tolls are, per mile, for planks, 6 cents per 1000 feet; shingles, 2 cents a thousand; wood, 6 cents a cord, per mile; timber, 6 cents a ton, per mile; goods in boats, 6 cents a ton; boats, rafts, &c., 6 cents additional for each lock.-Middlesex canal was completed in 1808. It opens a communication between Boston harbor and the Merrimack river, a distance of 27 miles. It has but one summit level, 104 feet above Boston harbor, and 32 above the level of the Merrimack, at the place of its junction with that river in Chelmsford, above Pawtucket falls; on which falls are situated the great manufacturing establishments of Lowell. Its breadth at the surface is 30 feet, at the bottom 20 feet, and its depth of water 3 feet. It makes part of a line of water communication between Boston and the central part of New Hampshire. There are on this canal 20 locks of different lifts, of which the highest is 12 feet. The locks are 75 feet long in the clear, 10 feet wide at the bottom, and 11 feet at the top. The number of aqueducts, over rivers and streams, is 7; and there are 50 bridges, having stone abutments 20 feet apart. Cost, $528,000; constructed by the Middlesex canal company, incorporated in 1789. The tolls, in 1824, were, for boats, $14,184; rafts, $5770; in the whole, $19,954.-Bow canal was made in 1812, and is the continuation of a line of navigation, of which the Middlesex canal constitutes a part. Its length is mile; the lockage 25 feet. Its dimensions, and the size of the locks, correspond to those of the Middlesex canal, being designed to pass the same boats. It passes a fall in the Merrimack of 25 feet, with 4 locks. A dam is constructed across the river, at the head of the falls. Expense of the whole work, $19,000.-Hooksett canal, another work on the Merrimack, 50 rods in length, is also a part of the same line of navigation, and passes Hooksett falls, in that river, by a lockage of 16 feet. These falls are lower down the river than the Bow canal. It has three locks. Cost of the whole works, $13,000.—Amoskeag canal, one mile in length, is another part of the same navigation, being eight miles farther down the Merrimack, at Amoskeag falls, which are passed by this canal with a lockage of 45 feet. It has 9 locks, and several dams. Cost, $60,000.-Union canal, a part of the same navigation, having 7 locks in 9 miles, is immediately below the Amoskeag canal, and comprehends 6 sets of falls. Cost, $35,000. Cromwell's falls, which are below, on the same river,

are locked at an expense of $9000; and 15 miles lower down are the Wiccassee falls, which have been locked at an expense of about $12,000. The line of navigation above described, commenced at a very early period in the history of canal navigation in the U. States; and the undertaking evinced great public spirit and enterprise on the part of the persons who engaged in it, whose inadequate pecuniary remuneration has, however, operated as a discouragement from similar enterprises in New England.--Pawtucket canal, a branch of the navigation above described, is a channel of about a mile and a half in length, passing Pawtucket falls on the Merrimack, and facilitating the navigation of that river from Chelmsford, where the Middlesex canal meets the river, to Newburyport, situated near its mouth. It is in the town of Lowell. A dam is made across the Merrimack, above those falls, a short distance below the termination of the Middlesex canal, for the purpose of regulating the height of water for supplying the Pawtucket canal, which was originally made merely for the passage of rafts and boats, and corresponded in dimensions to the other works on the same river above, and to the Middlesex canal. About the year 1820, the proprietors of the manufacturing establishments, which have, during the short subsequent period of about 10 years, grown to so surprising a magnitude, and which are still rapidly increasing, purchased the Pawtucket canal, and enlarged its channel to the dimensions of 90 feet in breadth, and 4 in depth, which not only serves for the original purpose of this canal, in passing these falls, which are in the whole about 32 feet in height, but also supplies immense hydraulic works, used for the purposes of manufacturing.Farmington canal was commenced in 1825, upon the plan of connecting, by a line of 78 miles of entirely artificial navigation, Connecticut river at Northampton, in Massachusetts, with New Haven harbor. It is 36 feet in breadth at the surface of the water, 20 at the bottom, and 4 feet in depth; and passes from New Haven to Farmington, in Connecticut, and from thence to Colebrook. The locks are 80 feet in the clear, and 12 feet wide. Its commencement at New Haven is from a basin of 20 acres capacity. It is (in 1831) nearly completed, and wholly under contract, from New Haven to Southwick ponds, in Massachusetts, a distance, by survey, of 58 miles; lockage, 218 ft.—Hampshire and Hampden canal is a projected

work, of 20 miles in length, in Massachusetts, in continuation of the Farmington canal, from Southwick ponds to Northampton; lockage, 298 feet.-Enfield canal, and the three others next mentioned, are short cuts at the different falls on Connecticut river. This was the latest of these improvements, having been commenced by a company, under a charter granted in 1824. It is 5 miles in length, and passes the Enfield falls, in the state of Connecticut. It has three stone locks, each 10 feet lift, 90 feet by 20. This canal adds 40 miles to the steamboat navigation up the Connecticut. Before the construction of this work, these rapids were navigated by the boats passing along the river, but they were a great impediment to the navigation. This canal, like the Pawtucket at Lowell, on the Merrimack, is intended both to facilitate navigation and supply hydraulic works. It is an important improvement, and does great credit to the undertakers.-South Hadley canal, the next artificial channel of navigation up the Connecticut, is in South Hadley, in Massachusetts. It is 2 miles in length, and overcomes the rapids in the Connecticut at the place, amounting to about 40 feet. There is a cut in this canal, 40 feet deep, 300 feet long, in solid rock. This improvement, and also the one next mentioned, were undertaken by a company which was chartered in 1792.-Montague canal, in the town of Montague, also in Massachusetts, is the next in order, higher up the Connecticut. It is 3 miles in length, 25 feet broad and 3 deep. By this canal the navigation passes the Montague falls, which commence above Miller's river; it terminates above the mouth of Deerfield river; lockage, 75 feet.-Bellows Falls canal is a short artificial channel, higher up the Connecticut, in the state of Vermont, for the purpose of passing Bellows falls.-Blackstone canal (see that article for a description of this canal). A few miles above Providence harbor, this canal meets the Blackstone or Pawtucket river, and passes up along its western bank a great part of its route, and is wholly supplied by the waters of this river and its tributary streams and ponds, some of the latter being made use of as extensive reservoirs, whereby, in the dry season, all the water used by the canal, and so taken away from the various manufacturing works established at the different falls on the river, is replaced, and supposed, indeed, to be more than compensated for. This canal facilitates and greatly increases the trade from the

northern part of the state of Rhode Isl-` and, and the interior central part of Massachusetts, to the market of Providence, that of New York, and the ports of the Middle and Southern States.

New York Canals. The state of New York has an extensive system of artificial inland navigation, connecting the navigation of Hudson river with that of lake Champlain, lake Ontario, lake Erie, and Delaware river.-Champlain canal is 634 miles in length, 40 feet wide at the surface, 28 feet at the bottom, and 4 feet in depth. This, and the Erie, Oswego and Cayuga canals, were made by the state, at the public expense, and remain under, the administration of the govern-. ment, as public property. The Champlain canal passes from Albany to Whitehall, on lake Champlain, connecting Hudson river with that lake. This canal commences at Whitehall, at the head of sloop navigation on lake Champlain, and, immediately rising, by 3 locks, 26 feet, proceeds on a level 5 miles up the valley of Wood creek, enters that stream, and follows its channel for 3 miles, to a lock of 4 feet lift, which extends the navigation up the creek 34 miles farther, to Fort Anne village, where, after rising by 3 locks 24 feet, it leaves the creek, and proceeds 12 miles on a summit level, through the towns of Fort Anne and Kingsbury, to Fort Edward. Here it receives the waters of the Hudson, above the great dam in that river, by a feeder of half a mile in length, and soon after descends 30 feet by 3 locks, into the Hudson, below the dam. The great dam is 900 feet long, 27 feet high, and throws back an ample supply of water for the summit level. From Fort Edward, the navigation is continued, for the present, down the channel of the Hudson, 8 miles, to the head of Fort Miller falls; around which it is carried by a canal on the east bank of the river, half a mile long, and having 2 locks of 18 feet descent. From Fort Miller, the river is made navigable for near three miles farther, by a dam at the head of Saratoga falls, just above which the canal leaves the river on the western side, and proceeds on a level for 17 miles, through Saratoga and Stillwater, Schuyler's flats, and over Fish creek, by an aqueduct, to a point two miles below Stillwater village. From this point to Waterford, where the canal enters the Mohawk, and meets the Erie canal, a distance of 9 miles, it descends 86 feet by 9 locks, 6 of which are in the town of Waterford. From Waterford, the Hudson is now made navign