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of Concord look to him to bear up the great philosophic reputation of the town. Being only in his fifty-third year it seems probable that the best work of his life is still before him. There are few writers in America who can in the next decade do as much as he in setting in luminous lights and in pointing out right solutions of the great problems now confronting us. May life and health be granted him to do this work and may his wisdom long continue to enlighten the land.

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PREPARATION FOR CITIZENSHIP.

I.

AT HARVARD COLLEGE.

BY ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, PH.D.,

Assistant Professor of History.

ARVARD COLLEGE was founded by the Colony, and for many decades received occasional grants of public money; until a very few years ago a large part of the governing body was controllable by elected officials of the State; and the existence of the college is specially recognized by the Constitution of Massachusetts. By a traditional sense of obligation to the Commonwealth, the college is in duty bound to send out her sons well prepared to take part in public affairs. It is the object of this article to consider how far that duty is performed; and it will be necessary to describe not only the instruction given, but the previous training of the students and the influences outside. the class-room; and to suggest some ways in which the preparation for citizenship may be made more thorough.

The average age of the students who enter the college each year is a little less than nineteen years; so that nearly one half of the undergraduates, and nearly all the graduate and professional students, may be legal voters somewhere; they bring with them about the same miscellaneous and incomplete ideas of government which are to be found among most intelligent young fellows soon to come of age. Some of them have studied civil government in preparatory schools; others have thought and read less upon such subjects than their brothers who have gone into business. Very few of them have any other notions than those which they have picked

up from conversation and the newspapers. The habit of reading the news has, however, made them acquainted with common political terms, and they are likely to have some sort of positive opinion about politics. In this respect, the study of government seems easier for them than for young women of the same age; comparing college classes with those in the "Annex," the latter seem quite as capable but less informed. Students come to college, therefore, with such information and ideas on government as they have spontaneously absorbed; in perhaps a third of the cases, their knowledge is reinforced by some study in the fittingschools.

Formal instruction in the principles of civil government cannot be traced at Harvard back of Jared Sparks's professorship, beginning about 1840. Since that time it has held its place in some form, and was one of the last subjects to be made elective. When "required history" was finally abolished in 1879, there was substituted a half-course 1 ("Constitutional Government: Elementary Course"). This is the foundation of college instruction in the subject. Though entirely elective, and designed for freshmen and sophomores, it is chosen every year by upwards of two hundred students; about three fourths of all the students in the college, therefore, carry away at least the knowledge to be gained in this course. The governments of England and the United States receive most attention; but there is a brief sketch of the constitutions of other modern countries. The instructor's object is to bring out the actual working and spirit of the governments described, rather than to analyze the constitutional provisions set down on paper. As in all similar courses in college, outside reading is required; and the class uses also a reprint of selected extracts and articles and of texts of constitutions. Advanced students, seniors, and graduates are admitted to another course ("Constitutional Government: Advanced Course "). The course is at present divided between two instructors, one of whom takes up centralized systems of modern constitutional government; the other takes up federal systems. In both parts

of the course there is comparison with the institutions of the United States. In fact, it comes very near being a study of com

1 A "course" at Harvard means a study pursued throughout the year, and requiring about one fourth of a student's time; most full courses have three exercises a week. A "halfcourse" is complete in itself, but absorbs only one eighth of the year's work.

parative constitutional law. Students prepare topics and sometimes lecture before the class; and there are frequent discussions. Although no other courses are entirely given up to the study of government, there are several which include the constitutions of modern countries. Among them are "European History during the Seventeenth Century and the first half of the Eighteenth," and "European History from the middle of the Eighteenth Century"; together they give a very good view of the rise and development of the parliamentary system in England, and of the old régime in France and the constitutional changes wrought by the French Revolution. In "Constitutional and Legal History of England to the Sixteenth Century" is traced the origin of English institutions, and the growth of representative government. Many questions interesting to the citizen are taken up in "Oral Discussion of Topics in Political Economy and History." This course is intended to give practice in public speaking on any subject; but it has been found that most of the questions selected for debate are connected in some way with the government of the United States.

The principal disputants on each side submit a formal brief of their argument, with specific references to easily accessible authorities. The brief is printed in the college daily paper before the debate comes off, and is a sort of guide both to the debaters and to the students at large.

The following is a list of the questions debated during the academic year 1887-88:

1. Should immigration into the United States be restricted? 2. Ought the United States government to construct an interoceanic canal?

3. Resolved, That the contract system of prison labor should be abolished.

4. Should the United States take immediate steps for the establishment of a complete system of government telegraphs?

5. Should home rule be granted to Ireland?

6. Should the members of the Cabinet have seats and voices in Congress?

7. Would the best interests of the laboring classes be advanced by the formation of a separate labor party?

8. Can the treatment of American fishermen by the Canadian authorities be justified?

9. Resolved, That the order of the Knights of Labor has benefited the laborers of the United States.

10. Should the United States government interfere to protect the rights of colored voters in the South?

11. Resolved, That the immediate cessation of the coinage of the silver dollar is necessary in order to avoid disastrous results to the monetary system of the United States.

12. Resolved, That the interests of North America demand the speedy annexation of Canada to the United States.

13. Resolved, That the agitation for an eight-hour working-day promotes the best interests of the laboring classes.

14. Resolved, That the best interests of the United States demand the return to power of the Republican party.

15. Resolved, That the tax on tobacco should be abolished. 16. Resolved, That the Blair Educational Bill ought to pass. 17. Do political and social reasons speak for the maintenance of the protective system of the United States?

18. Resolved, That the Fisheries Treaty should be ratified by the Senate.

19. Should the present Congress follow the policy outlined in the President's message?

20. Resolved, That political corruption and intimidation would be greatly lessened if the ballots at elections were printed and distributed by the State.

21. Resolved, That Americans should be permitted to buy foreign-built ships and to manage them under the American flag, and that no shipping subsidies should be granted.

22. Resolved, That the Dependent Pension Bill, which has passed the Senate, should become a law.

23. Resolved, That the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers has promoted the best interests of the engineers and of the community at large.

24. Resolved, That the minority in the House of Representatives was justified in preventing by filibustering the passage of the Direct Tax Bill.

25. Resolved, That the federal law taxing oleomargarine should be maintained, and that other laws of similar character should be passed.

26. Resolved, That President Cleveland has violated his pledges to further civil service reform.

27. Resolved, That the long-and-short-haul clause of the Interstate Commerce Act should be maintained.

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Somewhat similar questions are taken up in the course on "Elements of Public International Law. History of Treaties.” The principles and subjects of the foreign policy of the United States are an important part of the course.

In a less formal way, the discussion of political and economic topics goes on in several of the political economy courses. Thus in the introductory course, in addition to the theoretical part, there are exercises on banking, money, finance, labor and capital, coöperation, socialism, and taxation. Another course is devoted to "Investigation and Discussion of Practical Economic Questions," with short theses. Another course," Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years' War," approaches a series of topics from the historical side. Still another point of view is that of the course in social questions; the official title well describes it: "The Ethics of Social Reform: The questions of charity, divorce, the Indians, labor, prisons, temperance, etc., as problems of practical ethics; lectures, essays, and practical observations." As a part of the work, students are expected to visit public institutions, asylums, and jails. In most of these courses there is active discussion, and students are called upon to apply principles to many matters on which they may hereafter be obliged to vote.

A different sort of instruction is given in the "research courses" now offered by most of the instructors in political economy and history. The method is almost entirely that of investigation. While the range of topics is wide, more than half are discussions of some phase of some modern government; and under one instructor all the students work on questions drawn from the United States Constitution. Some of them have succeeded in clearing up obscure and neglected points in constitutional law.

Out of the topics which have been investigated by advanced students in the courses for special research during the last three years, the following bear upon civil government.

Rights and duties of a citizen of the United States.

The Civil Service. (1789-1850.)

Government of the Town and City of Boston. (1630-1830.) The Constitutional History of New Hampshire.

The social and economic condition of the North American

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