mental and moral development of the young as any branches of study that can be introduced into our schools or homes. Wherever manual training has been properly introduced and conducted, the results have been highly satisfactory. Anticipations as to its benefits have been more than realized. This, however, need not surprise any one. Greater interest has been awakened in the minds of the learners. They have been brought more in contact with things which have a real personal interest; and through these they become interested in words, which are the representatives of the real and the tangible. Do we sufficiently realize the importance of the awakened interest in the learner? Do we take pains enough to connect the thought and work of the school with the thought and work outside and beyond, in the home and the world? And then should we not, more than we do, endeavor to make the young feel that their labors in the school-room, indeed, all their labors in the educational line, have a close connection with the daily life awaiting them? If they could be led to see some connection between what they are doing in the school to-day and what they will be expected to do in the world to-morrow, would they be so eager to get out of the study-room and recitationroom, away from the delightful companionship that may be found in good books? Then, while we are seeking for those things best calculated to awaken and develop the minds of the young, let us not forget the importance of awakening and developing their interest. It is not enough to say they should be interested in those things that are placed before them as we think for their good. We all know how much more we are all interested in some things than in others, and it would be strange if children were not so too. One of the first things, then, in order to secure the benefits of manual training to the children is for the teachers to become interested in the subject, and to know how to present it to their pupils so as to interest them. While skill in the use of various tools is desirable, it is not essential, though some practical knowledge of drawing and construction is necessary. An intelligent teacher, however, may soon acquire enough insight into the work to make a proper beginning aud continue it in the right direction, with a fair assurance of a good degree of success. This may be done with no appliances except a knife, a lead-pencil, a ruler, a pair of compasses, a pair of scissors, and some manilla paper and cardboard. With these a series of interesting and instructive

lessons and exercises may be given in the school-room to children of the primary grades, occupying a good deal of time, covering a great deal of ground, and laying a broad and firm foundation for subsequent work, both in drawing and construction.

Drawing, itself manual training, must ever lie at the foundation of all school manual training worthy of the name. It may be made exceedingly interesting to boys and girls alike. They are fond of using drawing instruments, as every teacher must have observed who has seen how busily they will often occupy themselves in decorating the covers and fly-leaves of their books. Let us take a hint from this manifestation of a love of doing something in that line, and not check or crush the desire, but wisely direct it in its proper channel, and it can be made an educational force of great value. There are strong reasons why instrumental drawing should precede free-hand. It enables the pupil to execute his work with a fair degree of accuracy, and some experience goes to show that children get a better idea of form from first making the correct form by the use of such mechanical means as they themselves may employ. And then, too, such drawing familiarizes them with the use of such instruments and tools as may be used in the ordinary school-room at their own seats, and trains them to use their hands skillfully in various ways; and as this is one of the things we are aiming to do, the force of the suggestion to make instrumental drawing come first will be apparent to all. There is no doubt that greater interest also can be excited in this way and better results be obtained than in any other. Free-hand drawing, of course, has its place; but it should come later, though it need not be delayed long. It may follow soon, or immediately, depending upon the age and ability of the pupil. The judgment of teachers will show them when this should be introduced.

A course of instruction of this kind in manual training, with no instruments, tools, and materials other than those mentioned. above, could be carried on so as to give the pupils a great many of the leading facts in plane geometry; teach them how to draw all the figures, erect perpendiculars, divide lines, bisect arcs and angles, determine areas; get glimpses of the uses of the triangle in measurements; make testing squares and divided rulers and protractors; cut out of cardboard all the plane figures in elementary geometry and out of paper kindergarten materials for paperfolding, mat-making, number-work, and color-study, and do many

other things that the fertile brain of the teachers and children themselves will readily suggest, and it will be found to be a truly excellent process of awakening and developing the child.

Perhaps no subject is better suited for the purpose of making a proper beginning in manual training than geometry. If it is logically presented, concisely stated, and so worked out as to call into use with precision the pencil, the ruler, the compasses, the scissors, and the knife, the power of thinking and doing will both be promoted; and soon pupils so trained may be set to work from dictation written upon the board, and be left to work alone while the teacher is engaged with other classes. This will be a great gain, especially in ungraded country schools, where it is so often found difficult to keep all interested and profitably employed. These exercises will early give an opportunity for the pupils to do something for others, and the handiwork of the school may be made to serve some other educational purpose than that of the mere making of something for no special use. What is made may

be used for the purpose of illustrating some other subject for the same class, or it may be used for some other class. The employment of materials other than paper and cardboard might be introduced when some degree of familiarity with these had been acquired, and other tools be brought into use. The class might sometimes be resolved into a whittling-class, using the pocket-knife in shaping soft wood into regular forms; and clay-modeling might come in occasionally, as teachers have time and ability to direct. As pupils get older, the work can be made more difficult, taking in the drawing and construction of paper models of solids and more advanced work in clay and with wood and the pocket-knife. In time a room may be found for more advanced work still, and be used for a laboratory, and the manual training be made to contribute to the construction of apparatus, the performance of experiments, the preparation of illustrative objects, the preservation of natural history specimens, etc.

All this gives but a hint of how, through the different grades, the hand may be made to use the materials around as means of developing the young on all sides, so that they may become manually, mentally, and morally strong and beautiful, useful and happy.

OUTLINE NOTES ON THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION.

BY IDA M. GARDNER.

[These outlines are based upon notes on lectures delivered before the Rhode Island State Normal School by the late Prof. J. Lewis Diman, D.D., of Brown University. No attempt has been made to develop them into anything more than a connected whole. Such as they are, they embody the permanent impression made by the lectures upon a comparatively immature mind; and may therefore serve to illustrate Professor Diman's clear presentation of a subject, and its careful analysis. It is believed that the notes will be helpful to teachers, not only in the lines of study suggested, but in presenting to classes a short, concise statement of this interesting period of modern history.]

BUT

V. -THE GREAT REVIVAL.

UT for the wars occurring between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries, we should date the Renaissance from the former instead of the latter. Three facts prove that a revival did take place in the thirteenth century: 1. At that time the Scholastic philosophy was studied, and the universities were founded. 2. Gothic architecture was carried to its height in this century. 3. At this time modern literature originated. This revival was interrupted by the Hundred Years' War, which causes us to date the Renaissance from 1453. The first revival was a Mediæval development; the Modern Renaissance is quite the reverse in aspect and tendencies. The first a native outgrowth; the second a return to old classical ideas the revival of Greek letters. the revival of Greek letters. Through the instrumentality of the Church, Latin had been preserved, though in a corrupt form, till the twelfth century. Then the Universities of Bologna and of Paris were founded, and law and theology were studied in Latin. Greek had almost wholly perished. It was spoken only in the Eastern Empire.

At the close of the fourteenth century, Imanuella Chrisolora was sent as ambassador, from Constantinople to Florence. In 1395 he made his residence permanent, and began to instruct in Greek. He was an efficient teacher and had a great influence. It became the fashion to study Greek, which was considered part of a liberal education. In 1425 two other Greeks came to Florence and did the same. The study of Greek progressed. The

1 Copyright, 1888, by Ida M. Gardner.

merchant prince, Cosmo di Medici, was carrying on a great business with the East, and he began to collect Greek manuscripts. It was his constant aim to secure literary treasures. Many of these are still preserved in the Laurentian Library and are of incalculable value. The preservation of some of the classical authors is due to Cosmo. These Greek manuscripts furnished a means of carrying on Greek studies. Philosophy became the favorite study. Scholars grew up who not only admired Greek literature, but adopted its ideas. It thus came about that men who held high ecclesiastical rank did not believe at all in religion. They even affected to despise it as a degradation of fine old heathenism." So the Italian Renaissance was more than a mere literary revival. By the last part of the fifteenth century the educated people of Italy had lost all interest in theology. This spirit culminated in Leo X, who despised the religion of the Church of which he was the head.

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Two other circumstances made the Italian Renaissance a fixed fact: I. The Council of Florence, 1439, was held there with a twofold object: 1. To give the Italian party a chance to control the Council. 2. To bring about a reconciliation between the Eastern and Western Churches. The condition of the Eastern Empire led to a hope of such reconciliation; without the help of the West it must go down. The Council was attended by eminent ecclesiastics from Greece, who stayed a long time in Florence and gave prestige to the study of Greek. II. The destined and anticipated fall of Constantinople led some of the finest Greek scholars of that city to seek homes elsewhere. Influenced by the favorable reports of those who had attended the Council, many directed their steps to Florence. Through loss of property they were obliged to teach, and thus added their weight to the movement already well under way. By 1450 the Italian Renaissance was fully started, with Florence as its center.

Though wholly disconnected with the Revival of Letters, the invention of printing gave to the Renaissance its great power. Down to about four hundred years ago books were perpetuated by manuscript copies. Printing was an immense improvement, but not so great as we are apt to think. We have a false notion of the scarcity of books. Illuminated manuscripts were very