past century. Owing to the abnormal condition of labor in this colony it is difficult to estimate even approximately the cost of cultivating an acre of vines, there being scarcely any two farmers who agree upon the subject. Native labor is mostly employed in cleaning, cutting, and dig ging the vines at from 1s. 6d. to 28., with food, consisting of bread and meat and two bottles of wine, per day. To strike an average from all the various estimates which have been given me I should place the cost of a crop at about $40 per acre per annum; then taking the yield as before estimated at 380 gallons of wine per acre, at, say, 25 cents a gallon, and some conception may be formed as to what magnitude this industry might be brought up to were improved methods and skilled labor brought to bear upon it in South Africa.

Little or at least no vigorous effort has been made to prepare raisins for foreign export, the home demand being ample to the supply. Last year's customs reports makes no mention of raisins having been exported abroad, but for that year the amount of wines exported was placed at 121,852 gallons, which was principally shipped to the United Kingdom and the continent of Europe. There was also shipped about 5,000 gallons of spirits, which likewise found a market in Europe.

One of the gravest problems which the South African wine farmer has to contemplate is the labor question. The difficulty does not consist in the deficiency of labor, but what is particularly desired is intelligent labor. At the time and long after viticulture was introduced in this colony slaves formed a legally recognized element of society, the wine farmer had always sufficient, and, to a certain extent, skilled labor at his disposal. Slavery ran its day and ceased to exist, thus leaving the great majority of farmers without any practical knowledge of the industry which they and their forefathers had learned to regard as their natural and legitimate source of subsistence. The result is that there is to-day no generally recognized system of viticulture in the colony. Immigration to South Africa has not been rapid, and ninetenths of those who seek new homes here are English and Dutch, neither of which nationalities can benefit the wine farmer, as they are generally ignorant of vine culture. What the wine farmers here require is immigration from the rapidly declining wine districts of continental Europe. They fully appreciate and are alive to this fact, but their jealous greed, mildly termed conservatism, renders them averse to this class of immigration, because the continental workingman is reputed to strive to save a part of his earnings; and this fact alone renders it possible for him at some future time to become a proprietor and therefore a competitor, A native black man is regarded differently; he is so improvident with his earnings that he is seldom or never out of debt with his employer, in consequence of which the latter is enabled to exercise a sort of proprietorship over him.

Colored native labor answers every purpose for the ordinary work in vineyards and wine stores; but they should be constantly under the supervision of trained foremen or inspectors. There are no agricultural schools in this colony, and as it is connected by language with both England and Holland, in neither of which is there any viticulture, nor the literature of which possesses any practical books on the subject, there may be some excuse for the South African farmers want of technical training.

The advantages which the Cape Colony offers for the cultivation of wine cannot be surpassed by any other country; the soil and climate are favorable for it, and the great consumption of wine within the colony, the ready market in the adjoining countries, guarantee success to any

viticultural enterprise on a large scale, and the considerable distance from the centers of viticulture which are afflicted by phylloxera (this scourge has never visited the vineyards of South Africa) and the stringent legal measures which are in force against the introduction of that plague, offer an additional security for the stability of such enterprise. No effort ever seems to have been made in this colony to cultivate oranges, lemons, olives, or figs for foreign commerce. In reality but little attention is given to the cultivation of these fruits except in private gardens for family use, though no apparent reason exists why all of these fruits could not be extensively cultivated and made important articles of foreign commerce.

I am indebted to William Keit, esq., naturalist and curator of Duban, Natal, for the following information respecting the subject under review as applicable to the colony of Natal:

The cultivation of the grape vine in Natal, so far, has not yet reached the position of a colonial industry. In some localities the soil and situation are very unfavorable, and the produce uncertain and inferior, but in other places, under favorable circumstances, very fine and superior fruit is grown. No regular vineyards have yet been established with the object of growing grapes for the manufacture of raisins or wine. The orange and its varieties are extensively grown on the coast and sheltered situations in the midland districts. In general cultivation are the ordinary orange, St. Michael's orange, Mandarin orange, bitter orange, shaddock, lemon, citron, and lime. The most popular are the Mandarin, St. Michael's, and the large varieties of the ordinary orange. Orange trees come into full bearing when about ten to twelve years old, and where well cared for yield at twenty-five years very fair crops.

As a rule all orange trees are reared here from seeds, budding or grafting is practiced only for the propagation of new kinds, but is not an established custom for the object of improving known varieties in quality or prolificacy.

The orange scale insect, mealy bug, aphis, caterpillars, and in some localities Australian bug, are great enemies to the orange trees, the best remedy is in pruning the trees close in and covering them with strong lime wash. This usually will invigorate the trees and protect them for some years.

Orange trees have been planted here in various soils without regard to aspect and as a rule are doing well, but those which have the advantage of a northeasterly aspect and stiff soil are evidently doing best. The trees will grow very near the shore if they are protected from strong wind, but improve in appearance about 10 to 12 miles inland.

As the climate of Natal appears to be very suitable for the perfection of the orange there is usually great abundance of fruit during the season, but the prices obtainable at the local markets are as a rule so low that no inducement is offered to incur any particular expense for a higher cultivation, hence no systems of artificial irrigation are practiced.

An orange tree in the prime of life will yield 600 to 1,000 oranges, worth wholesale from 58. to 88. per thousand.

The olive of commerce has been tried repeatedly but has failed to establish itself in Natal.

Figs for table use and commerce are grown with very small success, frequently the crops are total failures.

Vines have recently been introduced into the Orange Free State and seem to thrive well; but in the Transvaal the sudden changes of temperature are not favorable to successful wine or raisin culture.

In conclusion I desire to particularly express my obligations for valuable information given me to Prof. Paul Daniel Hahn, Ph. D., M. A., who has courteously and kindly placed at my disposal certain official reports of his to the Cape Government on the subject of viticulture. JAS. W. SILER,

UNITED STATES CONSULATE,

Cape Town, May 6, 1884.

Consul.

.

THE CANAL SYSTEM OF CANADA.

REPORT BY CONSUL-GENERAL STEARNS, OF MONTREAL.

The Saint Lawrence River, and the Great Lakes whose waters flow through it into the Atlantic, form a continuous water-way extending • from Fond du Lac, at the head of Lake Superior, to the straits of Belle Isle, a distance of 2,384 miles. Along its course at convenient distances is abundant water-power, and in its numerous bays and inlets are safe and commodious harbors.

Emptying into the Saint Lawrence and contributing to the volume of its waters, as well as to the importance of its trade, are the Ottawa and Richelieu rivers, the former bringing it into communication with the immense lumber forests of Ontario, and the latter connecting it with Lake Champlain in the United States. These rivers were the thoroughfares in peace and the base lines in war for the Indian tribes long before the white man appeared on the Western Hemisphere. Upon their broad bosoms the first explorers and voyagers pushed their adventurous way into the heart of this Northern country, and opened it to commerce and civilization.

The early colonists of Canada found them the convenient and almost the only channels of intercourse among themselves and with the home country. Supplies were brought up the Saint Lawrence in sea-going vessels to Quebec and Montreal, and thence distributed to the scattered settlements throughout the country.

Indian canoes, richly laden with furs and pelts, and later, batteaux and Durham boats, freighted with the surplus grain if the colonists, and lumber rafts from the Upper Ottawa and the lakes, floated down the Ottawa and the Saint Lawrence to Montreal, Three Rivers, and Quebec, when their cargoes were exchanged for the comforts and necessaries of life brought from France. The Saint Lawrence was navigable for seagoing vessels as far as Montreal, but between Montreal and the foot of Lake Ontario there was a succession of rapids separated by navigable reaches. On account of the rapidity of the current these rapids are impassable to boats of any size ascending the river, but most of them can be passed on the downward trip by vessels not too heavily loaded and built strongly enough to resist the strain of the whirling waters.

The head of navigation on the Ottawa River is the city of Ottawa, now the capital of the Dominion, but formerly known as Bytown. Between this city and the mouth of the river at the southern extremity of the island of Montreal there are several impassable rapids.

The Richelieu, which is, as I have said, the outlet of Lake Champlain, was also so much obstructed at various points as to be unavailable for navigation.

A list of the various rapids on the Saint Lawrence, Ottowa, and Richelieu, with a statement showing their length and that of the navigable reaches between them, will be found in Appendices A, B, and C.

The canal system of Canada, both in its entirety and its separate parts, has been established to overcome these obstructions, and, by artificial channels at various points, to render freely navigable the natural routes of transportation. By means of it the whole Saint Lawrence system, from Lake Erie to the sea, has been made passable by a connecting chain of canals, comprising 714 miles of artificial navigation, the

least depth of which is 9 feet; a line of communication established between the Saint Lawrence at Montreal and Lake Ontario at Kingston, by way of the Ottawa and the Rideau River, and a passage opened from the Saint Lawrence to Lake Champlain and the United States.

The history of the efforts put forth to accomplish results so creditable to the enterprise and liberality of the people of Canada is an interesting and instructive one, and this report will consist of a résumé of its salient points, with such statistical information as may pertain to it, and a statement of the present condition and future prospects of the system. For convenience, and because of their relations to each other, the canals thus constructed are grouped in official reports, and by those who have written upon them, under five heads, viz:

(1.) The Saint Lawrence Navigation.

(2.) The Richelieu and Lake Champlain.

(3.) The Montreal and Kingston.

(4.) The Upper Ottawa.

(5.) The River Trent.

While I shall not follow these divisions, but rather the chronological order, in treating of the subject, I shall have occasion to refer to them from time to time, and it will aid in understanding what I say if they are kept in mind.

1. THE SAINT LAWRENCE NAVIGATION.

Before the commencement of the present century, and during the period of French ascendency, locks, or more properly small canals with locks, had been constructed by the French at the Faucille, the Trou du Moulin, Split Rock, and Coteau du Lac to overcome the Cascades, Cedar and Coteau rapids between lakes Saint Louis and Saint Francis on the Saint Lawrence River. These canals were from 6 to 7 feet wide, had a depth of 2 feet on the miter sills of the locks, which were built of stone and were designed for boats and batteaux capable of carrying from 30 to 40 barrels of flour.

A little later a channel with 2 feet of water was obtained around the Sault Saint Louis or Lachine rapids by removing obstructions from the Saint Pierre River, a small stream running across the marsh now traversed by the Lachine Canal, but this channel seems to have been of little practical use.

From about the same date until the construction of what is now known as the Cornwall Canal, batteaux were able to ascend the Long Sault Rapids, upon Lake Saint Francis, by means of two small locks, one of which was situated near the village of Moulinette, and was constructed and maintained by Adam Dixon, a merchant of that village. But after the conquest of Canada by the British, and its division into the Upper and Lower provinces, the country above Montreal became more thickly settled, and as the land was brought under cultivation, and the crops more than met the wants of the inhabitants, the question of the best method of securing for their surplus products cheap and expeditious transportation to tide-water, and thereby stimulating immigration and settlement became a very important one.

Both the upward and downward trade was very much embarrassed by the difficulties and delays of the passage. In coming down the boats could, it is true, carry full loads, and the loss of time and danger at the rapids, while sufficiently great to be a serious incumbrance to commerce, were inconsiderable when compared with what was experienced on the upward trip. Ascending freight had to be hauled from Montreal

to Lachine, and there loaded on boats, which could not carry above eight tons, and generally started in companies and kept close together that the crews might help one another in pushing up against the swift current. At the foot of some of the rapids the whole cargo had to be unshipped and carted to the next navigable reach, while at others the same course had to be pursued with a greater or less part of the freight that the boats might be sufficiently lightened to enter the small locks, which afforded the only means of passing the obstructions.

The average time between Lachine and Kingston on the upward trip was twelve days, and the actual expenses of a Durham boat, with an average cargo of 8 tons, was about $26.50 per ton.

The time occupied in coming down was, of course, much less, not usually exceeding four days, and the expense proportionally smaller. The vexatious delays, and the additional expenses of the many portages, and the frequent transhipments from boat to cart and from cart back to boat were discouragements to trade too grave to be longer submitted to by the enterprising and energetic men who were transforming the wilderness of Upper Canada into fruitful farms and lining its available streams with saw and grist mills.

In 1804 the Government of Lower Canada completed a 3-foot channel through the Lachine Rapids, close to the north shore, by which boats could be dragged or poled from Montreal to Lachine.

At about the same time the Imperial Government, primarily for military purposes, enlarged, reconstructed, and put into more advantageous positions the old French locks at Split Rock and Coteau du Lac, and built a new canal nearly half a mile in length, with three locks, around the cascades, instead of the old locks at the Faucille and the Tron du Moulin. In 1805 and 1806 Lower Canada appropriated $8,000 for the improvement of navigation on the Saint Lawrence, and some work was done at various points, mainly in dredging.

During the war of 1812 the construction of a canal to connect Montreal with Kingston, at the foot of Lake Ontario, by way of the Ottawa River, was agitated as a military measure, and various plans and routes were proposed.

The Imperial Government urged upon the provincial authorities the desirability of prosecuting the work and offered to aid them by an ap propriation of £70,000; but the return of peace took away the immediate necessity for military works, and the people were unwilling to assume the burden of constructing this canal. The public men of Canada, and those interested in the commerce of the province, felt that the Saint Lawrence route was destined to be the most important contributor to the commercial prosperity of the country, and that any money that could be spared from its slender resources for internal improvements could be most profitably spent on the Saint Lawrence between tide-water and Kingston.

In 1815 the legislature of Lower Canada passed a bill granting the promoters of a scheme to build a canal around the Lachine Rapids a sum of money in aid of its construction, and in 1818 a joint commission, constituted by the Governments of Lower and Upper Canada, and representing each, made a very instructive report, in which they recommended that canals should be built at the Lachine Rapids and between Lake Saint Francis and Lake Saint Louis, and at the rapids above Lake Saint Francis.

In 1819 the above-mentioned bill was repealed and another was passed incorporating a joint stock company for the same purpose, with a capital of $600,000; and in the same year another company with a smaller cap17 A-No. 42-4