trade in musical boxes, but a visit to the establishment of M. J. Paillard will convince the most sceptical that automatic musical in

FIG. 6.

struments play an important part in satisfying the musical demands of the public.

MENTAL SCIENCE.

The Illusions of Drawing and Painting.

THE arts of drawing and painting depend upon the possibility of presenting to the eye a result in two dimensions of space which it will readily transform into one of three dimensions. In this process there is a large element of illusion- - of conscious, designed illusion. The chief factor in this process is perspective. If the spectator take, whether in imagination or reality, the position of the artist when making the design, the image on his retina will be the same as that on the artist's retina, and the design will be recognized as the counterpart of the reality, provided the spectator knows in general the nature of the object represented. If the facsimile is to be more exact, color must be imitated, light and shade introduced, and the retinal effect copied with all the skill of eye and hand. In order to have an æsthetic effect, the picture must represent known objects: the interpretation of two-dimensional objects into three-dimensional must be rendered easy by the knowledge of the three-dimensional. The artist must not create entirely new forms: exceptions are apparent only, and prove the rule. The poetic monsters are either conventionalized, or unite incongruous but existing forms, half man and half beast. This is especially necessary when the object of the drawing is purely intellectual, to make clear something not easily expressed in words, such as designs for houses, mechanical constructions, and the like. Here a more or less exact knowledge of the type of object represented is needed. To the layman such designs have little meaning.

In artistic painting, however, it is not the most detailed and exact drawing that produces the best result. Photography excels all manual art in this, but its effect is of a lower order. The same can be said of those clever productions by which a bas-relief appears drawn in two dimensions, or the objects of a panorama to stand out in three. One admires the skill, but it is a curiosity rather than a piece of art. But the object of art is not servile imitation, not to give the spectator an absolute illusion, but to arouse certain feelings, certain thoughts; and those details must be chosen that bring to mind the appropriate sentiments.

The spectator of a painting never loses entirely the sense of viewing a painted surface: for (1) the drawing is strictly accurate only for one point of view; every change of position vitiates the perspective; (2) the phenomena of binocular vision prevent the illusion (the points of the canvas are seen at the real distance of the eye from the canvas, and not at the various distances required by the perspective; while, furthermore, the real object would form different images on the two retina, and the painting gives two nearly alike); (3) even in viewing objects monocularly, we get impressions of distance, for the eye constantly moves, while these changes are quite different in viewing a painting with one eye (the illusion of a painting is no doubt increased by regarding it monocularly through a hollow tube); (4) color and light can be imitated, but their mental effect is recognizably different from that of the real objects.

A picture placed in a horizontal position produces the illusion nearly as well as in a vertical position. If it be a marine view, the water does not seem vertical in the former case, though in the latter it seems horizontal. If it be an architectural design, it is not displaced, any more than we confuse directions when we gaze at

1 By M. J. L. Soret, in Revue Scientifique, Nov. 3, 1888.

an object in a reclining position. This is the result of much practice in seeing the form of representations irrespective of their position, and in transforming the actual retinal image into the one that the artist intends. If you dispense with all light and shade, with all color, with all perspective, and leave simply a bare outline, then we can see in such an outline all the various designs which it can physically represent. If you draw one square within another and join the corners, you can see such a figure either as the description just given, or as the picture of a shallow trough looking into the bottom, or as a view of the same object from the bottom; and so on. Light and shade, familiarity with the design, decide what we shall see. This does not mean that the artist may neglect perspective, but only that the object of the perspective is to make easy the mental apperception of the spectator. Cases occur in which a painter violates the rules of perspective, if by following them he would produce a scientifically accurate but apparently unnatural result.

In the perception of distance the objects touching the lower edge of the canvas are, as a rule, meant to be seen as in the plane of the canvas. This gives the spectator his point of view, while the framing of the picture by supplying a vertical and a horizontal, aids very materially his conception of position. If in a landscape we have the ground touching the lower end of the canvas, and the sky the upper, we can judge distances best. If a prominent object is cut at the edge of the canvas, it increases the difficulty of distance perception. Of course, the size of the painted objects need bear no approximation to the actual size. Our eye is trained to perceive form relations independently of size; and, if the real size of the object is familiar, we involuntarily suppose a more distant point of view. So, again, we generally underestimate the size of colossal figures, because we allow too much for our distance from them.

A more complete proof that imitation is not the artist's chief aim is that he attempts to represent motion in a single view, which physically is impossible. When a tree is represented in a wind, its branches are shown bent and strained in the direction of the wind; and this gives us at once the picture of a wind, of motion. So in a figure the attitude characteristic of a series of motions stands for the motion itself. It is not so much the fidelity as the suggestiveness of the attitude that is important. So, again, when objects move very rapidly, they become indistinct to our vision, and by painting them as indistinct the illusion of rapid motion is aided. If the motion is too rapid for the eye to follow, as in the rotation of the spokes of a carriage-wheel, the peculiar appearance can be imitated on canvas, and suggests extreme speed.

In the walk or run of an animal, although one position follows another with great rapidity, the eye selects certain positions as typical, and these the artist uses as the presentation of movement. Generally the position at the beginning or the end of a step is chosen. Instantaneous photography shows the great variety of positions in passing from one step to another; but many of these have an unnatural appearance to the eye, and the artist cannot utilize them.

A very distinctive illusion is shown in many portraits in which the eyes seem to follow the eyes of the spectator. This occurs when the model's eyes are facing the artist's. We assume the position of the artist, and so have the eyes in the picture looking at ours. If we move to one side, we get the illusion of the portrait's turning about, because the eyes still suggest direct vision, and the rest of the pose does not strongly contradict it. This lateral displacement, brought about by a change of position, is very slight in a painting, while very marked in a three-dimensional object. Paintings of animals frequently show similar effects. The true artist must understand and utilize such illusions, for they make the difference between what is lifelike and what is artificial.

THE HOMING INSTINCT. — Dr. George M. Gould (Progress, October, 1888) has collected authentic cases of animals finding their way homeward over long distances. Dogs, even when carried away in a blindfolded or drugged condition, find their way home over distances from five to five hundred miles; and in one case, when the dog was taken off along the two sides of a triangle, he came home by the third side. The exquisitely trained instinct of the flying pigeon, and similar capabilities of most animals, show the

great importance of this faculty. By way of explanation, Dr. Gould suggests, that, without the faculty of finding the way homeward, the sphere of an animal's life would be very narrow. The maintenance of the species would develop the power of seeking new fields and the power to turn homewards. The ordinary senses cannot account for this homing instinct, as actual experiments have shown. Dr. Gould sees here the true sixth sense, and regards it as a sensibility to changes in electric and magnetic tension, due to position on the earth's surface. The home is the animal's north pole. By habit, it is accustomed to the magnetic conditions there, but when away is restless, and finds its way homeward by this mysterious compass. Dr. Gould connects with this some fanciful speculations as to the import of the pineal gland as a possible magnetic organ, and some hints as to the physical nature of homesickness in mankind.

The

a report on any line that was a complete financial success. system in Brussels has not given perfect satisfaction, although improvements have been made that will reduce the cost. The road is on a small scale, however, and it does not necessarily follow that it would not pay, even now, if it was on a larger scale. The road, too, is a difficult one, with long grades of over three per cent. A careful study was made of the different types of accumulators in use at present, and an estimate is made of the comparative cost of storage-battery traction, as compared with that of horses. As a result, the commission advised that electric cars be tried, and states that it would be an honor to Milan, which was one of the first cities in the world to adopt electric-lighting on a large scale, to be also one of the first to utilize electricity for the propulsion of its

tramcars.

ELECTRICAL NEWS.

A Novel Telephone.

WE take the following from a recent issue of the New York Electrical Review: "The Lowth stettio-telephone hails from Chicago, and is a combined transmitter and receiver. A hollow extension about four inches long is attached to the receiver, from the end of which a small button protrudes slightly. The button is placed against the throat near the vocal chords, and the receiver is held against the ear in the usual manner. When the operator speaks, the vibrations of the throat are transmitted with, it is said, distinct clearness. The instrument is operated by the muscular vibrations that accompany the utterance of words. The inventor, James Lowth, is said to have been experimenting and working on this instrument for over ten years. When he first applied for a patent, three years ago, the authorities at Washington thought him a crank, and refused to issue one. He attached the instrument to wires in the office, and asked over it, What do you think now?' Back over the wire came, I give in. It works perfectly.' Our Chicago informant says it has been successfully operated between that city and Milwaukee, and in Pittsburgh it worked over a line seventy-five miles in length, on which were twenty-five Bell instruments." While, if the evidence is correct, this instrument certainly works, yet it is difficult to see how sounds produced by changing the relative positions of the tongue, teeth, and lips, such as go to make up a large part of the human voice, are accurately transmitted by this telephone. Never having seen one of these instruments, we do not yet "give in."

FAURE'S NEW SECONDARY BATTERY. - In this battery M. Faure uses finely divided metals pressed together in a self-supporting mass, or metal plates are used having combined with them finely divided particles of the same metal. Each plate is surrounded by a sheet of prepared asbestos, the sheet being a thirty-second of an inch thick, dipped first into some soluble salt, and then into a solution of a soluble silicate capable of producing with the first an insoluble compound. In his cell M. Faure uses zinc combined with finely divided zinc, and copper combined with finely divided copper. The solution used is phosphate of potash. On subjecting such a cell to the action of the electric current, phosphate of copper is formed on the surface of the copper element. M. Faure then substitutes a fresh solution of phosphate of potash, and, upon discharging the battery, phosphoric acid is transferred from the solution to the zinc, and from the copper to the solution; so that the solution remains unchanged as regards its constituent elements. The preliminary preparation would be avoided if phosphate of copper were placed upon the copper element in the first instance; but phosphate of copper is not easy to obtain and manipulate, and the process described is said to accomplish the desired object.

AN ITALIAN COMMISSION ON ELECTRIC TRACTION. - The Società Anonima degli Omnibus of Milan some time ago selected three engineers to travel through Europe, inspect the various electric-traction roads in operation, and report on the adaptability to the tramways in Milan. The main part of the report of the experts is taken up with the description and discussion of storage-battery systems; overhead, underground, and rail conductor systems being only incidentally mentioned. The commission was unable to make

coast of California, the central line passing near Punta Arenas. The space within the lines marked northern limit' and 'southern limit' indicates that in which the eclipse will be total. The duration of the eclipse will be about two minutes.

-During the past week the Society of Amateur Photographers of New York has been holding at its rooms, 122 West 36th Street, an informal exhibition of prints, the work of members of the society. The exhibition has proved very successful; so much so, that, at the request of many visitors, the exhibition will continue until Saturday, Dec. 15. About six hundred pictures are exhibited, and include views in many parts of Europe, China, Japan, Corea, the United States, historical buildings in this city, flash-light pictures, etc. The rooms will be open from 10 A.M. to 6 P.M., and from 7 to 10 P.M. every day and evening this week, except Tuesday evening. There is no charge for admission, and non-members of the society wishing to see the exhibition can obtain tickets by writing to the secretary of the society.

THE UNITED STATES HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE has so largely increased its field of work and usefulness within the last few years, that the hydrographer's report to the chief of Bureau of Navigation will receive attention not only from the naval service and the maritime community, but from a large portion of the scientific world, and the public generally. In fact, there can be no more praiseworthy object kept in view by officers of both the army and the navy than the maintenance and encouragement of public interest in, and acquaintance with, the organization, management, and general conduct of at least such of their offices and bureaus as appeal in any special way to popular interest. There is undoubtedly no branch of the Navy Department to which this consideration is so applicable as to the Hydrographic Office, in view of the recent extension of its field of work by means of the branch offices established already in six of our principal seaports (Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, and San Francisco), and authorized in two more (Norfolk, Va., and Portland, Ore.). The importance of this step, carried into effect by the recent hydrographer, Commander J. R. Bartlett, with the support of the chief of Bureau of Navigation, Commodore John G. Walker, is so great, in its relation to the navy, the maritime community, and the shipping interests

of the whole country, that a brief review of the working of these branch offices may well be given in this connection. Complete sets of charts, sailing-directions, light-lists, and other nautical publications, are kept at hand, together with standard barometers and thermometers; and masters of vessels can obtain the latest and most reliable information regarding every subject connected with navigation. These facilities have been so generally taken advantage of, that chambers of commerce, maritime exchanges, marine insurance companies, and other commercial bodies, are enthusiastic in their approval. Advantage has been taken of the cordial relations thus established with shipping men to collect a large amount of data relative to hydrography and marine meteorology, much of it of a high order of scientific as well as practical value; and every effort is made to publish the results, in order that they may be known and utilized. Thus the publication of the Monthly Pilot Chart' was a very happy thought, and it has become of recognized value and authority, and a most important adjunct in the work of the office. The tabulated statements accompanying the hydrographer's report, giving in detail the work of each branch office during the year, illustrate what an important part these offices play in the collection and dissemination of nautical information. It is highly gratifying to learn from the report of the present hydrographer, Lieut. G. L. Dyer, U.S.N., that the standard of efficiency already attained is likely to be maintained, and even increased, and that, while the relations of the office to the navy are of course regarded as of paramount importance, its raison d'être being to supply our vessels of war with reliable charts and nautical information of every kind, its relations to the commercial marine are given their proper share of attention also, and a broad view is taken of the part that the office has taken, and should continue to take, in facilitating the scientific study of every problem relating to the ocean. In this connection too much praise cannot be given to the cordial co-operation between this office and the Signal Service, in collecting and utilizing, without either duplication of work or friction of any kind, meteorological data relative to the ocean and the land.

IN LOOKING OVER the columns of the technical journals devoted to electrical industries, one is struck with the rapidity with which the applications of electricity are being extended. Dozens of new electric-lighting stations are commenced each week, while the applications of electric motors to street-car and stationary work occupy a considerable space in these journals. This is very encouraging, and shows that electric-lighting and the distribution of power have taken a permanent place, and are, under certain circumstances, paying investments. But, at the same time that we read of this rapid growth, we note an extension in another and less promising direction. New companies are being constantly incorporated for the manufacture of electrical apparatus, — lighting and motor systems, storage and primary batteries, fire-alarm and gaslighting systems, few of them with a capital of less than a hundred thousand dollars, the majority with a capital varying from that figure to one or two millions. If we will investigate these corporations, we will find that in many of them a large amount of the stock is reserved for the patent rights and for the promoters, and the amount left to supply the working capital is a comparatively small proportion of the whole. The investors find themselves in the position of subscribing the total working capital to a company, paying from the profits liberal salaries to the officers of the company, who are usually the incorporators and the owners of the patents, and who, controlling the majority of the stock, can fix their own compensation; and finally they receive only a small proportion of the earnings, in many companies from one-half to one-tenth, if there happens to be any. It should be remembered by investors that patents, unless they are fundamental in their character, are not of very great value. A larger part of the new corporations that have been recently formed operate under patents that are little better than a number of other devices for accomplish

ing the same purpose. Edison, for his fundamental and valuable patents in electric-lighting, has received less share in the stock of the Edison Company than have the patentees of some small improvement in an electric gas-lighting or fire-alarm device in the companies that have been formed to promote them. It is too often the case that the small cash capital subscribed is used to make a good showing for the company until the promoters have sold their stock, when the company is very liable to suspend. All this very seriously retards the progress of electrical industry. Neither those who lose in companies like the above, nor their friends, are very likely to invest again; and the result is, that the companies that can do legitimate and remunerative work have trouble in getting the capital necessary to develop their business as fast as they would otherwise be able. That there is an immense field for work, and remunerative work, is shown by the wonderful growth of such companies as the Edison, Brush, Thomson-Houston, Westinghouse, Sprague, and others. But we would advise all investors in electrical companies to first find whether they are legitimate business enterprises, with a fair amount of capital allowed for patents, supposing they work under patents, and then to try and find out whether there is any merit in the plan that is to be introduced. The promoters of the company are not the best persons from whom to take evidence as to its value. As for investments in local lighting companies, if there is an efficient management, and if a proper local franchise can be obtained, then, unless a very uneconomical system is chosen, and the local conditions are unusually unfavorable, it is the experience of the last few years that the company should pay good dividends. While we believe, then, that electricity offers an excellent field for investment, and that well-managed companies will pay, yet we cannot too strongly urge investors not to rush blindly into investments on the strength of the representation of interested parties. The advantages of electricity for lighting must lead to its almost universal adoption in the near future, while its adaptability to the distribution of energy opens an almost limitless field for motor-work. The one thing that could most retard its progress would be a condition of public distrust caused by unwise investors, who will equally injure electrical interests and themselves.

THE THIRTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT, which President Gilman has just presented to the board of trustees of Johns Hopkins University, is very interesting reading. It incorporates reports, drawn with some attention to detail, by the various heads of departments, dealing with the specific work accomplished under their respective supervision. This is a feature of considerable value to those who are following closely the development of university work in the United States, and is not unfamiliar, as President Barnard has printed such appendices to his annual report to the trustees of Columbia College for several years past. Mr. Gilman characterizes the academic year 1887-88 as one of steady advance. The number of students has increased, the standard of scholarship has been maintained, the publications have been as many as ever, the fidelity and enthusiasm of the principal teachers cannot be too strongly commended." Reference to the financial condition of the institution is made in these words: "Our only cause for anxiety is one of which you are fully aware, the loss of income from the stocks which were given to the university by its founder. Your wisdom, gentlemen of the board of trustees, will no doubt devise some efficient relief. I believe it to be a reasonable expectation that the efforts which you have put forth, and which you have encouraged others to put forth, for the establishment of a university, will receive financial support when you are ready to ask for it." The academic staff included, during the year, fifty-seven teachers. The number of students enrolled during the year was four hundred and twenty, of whom one hundred and ninety were residents of Maryland, one hundred and ninety-six of other States, and twenty-five of foreign countries. Of this number, two hundred and thirty were already graduates of

other institutions. The degree of B.A. was conferred on thirtyfour candidates, and that of Ph.D. upon twenty-seven, during the year.

The guiding principle upon which Mr. Gilman has developed the university is eminently sound. In view of the numerous newspaper reports and articles concerning Columbia College and its development, the perusal of the following passage from the report before us is recommended to the trustees and faculties of the latter institution. "We continue to adhere," says Mr. Gilman, " to a definition which is hallowed by age and confirmed by experience, that a university is a body of teachers and scholars, - universitas magistrorum et discipulorum,- a corporation maintained for the conservation and advancement of knowledge, in which those who have been thoroughly prepared for higher studies are encouraged to continue, under competent professors, their intellectual advancement in many branches of science and literature. In this society we recognize two important grades: (a) the collegiate students, who are aspirants for the diploma of bachelor of arts, to which they look forward as a certificate that they have completed a liberal course of preliminary study; and (b) the university students, including the few who may be candidates for a higher diploma, that of doctor or master (a certificate that they have made special attainments in certain branches of knowledge); and a larger number who, without any reference to a degree, are simply continuing their studies for varying periods. Corresponding to the wants of these two classes of students, we have two methods of instruction, the rule of the college, which provides discipline, drill, training, in appointed tasks, for definite periods; and the rule of the university, the note of which is opportunity, freedom, encouragement, and guidance in more difficult studies, inquiries, and pursuits."

-

THE CLAIMS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE TO

UNIVERSALITY."

ALL efforts to create a new language for international use are really unnecessary, because we already possess a vehicle of communication, in our native tongue, which, if not perfect, is sufficiently so, and is at least as good as any that has been proposed. Whatever imperfections may be discerned in English, their removal, if thought necessary, can be easily accomplished in books for foreign learners. But, taking our language as it is, and comparing it with other languages, I think I may claim assent to a few fundamental propositions.

The first proposition is, English is as readily understood by foreign learners as a foreign language is by English learners. This statement might be strengthened; for the inflection of words in other languages requires much preliminary study to enable a learner to translate; whereas the student of English has only to deal with words which are, for the most part, unchanging, and the full meaning of which, consequently, he learns at once. English is therefore, in reality, more readily understood by a foreign learner than a foreign language is by an English learner.

The second proposition is, English is as readily pronounced with intelligibility by foreign learners as a foreign language is by English learners. Accuracy of pronunciation, according to native standards, is by no means essential to intelligibility. This is especially true of English. We hear speakers mispronounce every element in a sentence, yet they are understood; and the substitution of one sound for another is a very common habit: as in forming th instead of s, and "lisping all the hissing sounds;' or "croaking the sound of far back in the rasping throat;' or "protruding the sound through the narrow, rounded aperture of the approximated lips;" or in substituting t for k, as when little Missie "calls her tiny kitten to come, that she may catch it." We understand the lisper, the burrer, the infant prattler, and the foreign stumbler

1 Address delivered by Dr. A. Melville Bell before the Nineteenth Century Club, New York, Dec. 12, 1888.