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hectares of forest in 1840. and 55,584 in 1862, the unplanted part being chiefly the little valleys (lettes) between the Dunes. From 1881 to 1865 the greater part of the forests on the Dunes was sold by the government for a total of 13,000,000 francs; but, as the supply of resin from our southern states was just then diminished by the war of the rebellion, the pines were much injured by bad treatment from their private owners. The Marensin is a region of old forests included in the district of lagoons between the southern quarter of the Dunes and the GrandesLandes as far south as Dax. It has long produced a valuable yield of resin, and is thought to have had harbors and ports in Roman times; but these have long since been destroyed by the drifting sands. The Maremme comes next farther south along the coast. It is a region of large dunes of irregular form, independent of the present coast, and probably much older than the sand-hills farther north, occupied by an old forest of cork-oaks and resin-pines. The Chalosse is the only agricultural part of the Landes. It extends Southward of the Adour to the department of Basses Pyrénées, a rolling, well-watered, fertile country. After this introductory description, M. Blanc discusses the future of the region, and its improvement by further tree-planting, and by opening a canal to connect all its lagoons behind the Dunes. — ( Rev. scient., 1883, 391.) W. M. D. [1118

METEOROLOGY.

Rainfall in South Australia. - The tropical rains on the north coast prevail during the summer months, commencing generally towards the end of October or beginning of November, and lasting until April, little or none falling during the intermediate months. These tropical rains extend more or less across the interior, down to, or even south of the Peake (lat. 28°), but fall off considerably south of the Daly Waters (lat. 16° 15'). This, however, varies greatly in different years, according to the force and southerly dip of the north-west monsoon. In some cases, heavy thunder-storins and torrential rain extend over nearly the whole of the interior, and in other years the rainfall is heavy for only a few hundred miles from the north coast; and the country, especially south of the tropics, down even to the head of Spencer's Gulf, is exposed to long and severe drought. On the other hand, the winter rains occasionally extend well up into the interior, sometimes reaching or passing the centre of the continent. This, perhaps, is more especially the case when the centre of a cyclonic disturbance passes to the north of Adelaide, from west to east, and also when cyclonic disturbances in Queensland, or on the east coast, have their western quadrant extending well into the central regions of the continent and the northern pastoral districts of South Australia. But most of our disturbances have their centre south of the continent, their path being roughly parallel to the coast-line, so that as a rule our winter rains thin off, and become uncertain about a hundred miles north of the head of Spencer's Gulf, and are heavy north of the Gulf only along or near the Flinders Range. The area of minimum rainfall extends from the Great Australian Bight to Port Augusta, at the head of Spencer's Gulf; northwards up Lake Torrens and Lake Eyre; and again over the plains to the east of the Flinders Range, up to about lat. 25°, reaching on either side to within, perhaps, a few hundred miles of the east and west coasts (especially the latter). All south of this, and for some distance northwards, along and in the immediate neighborhood of the Flinders Range, we usually have good winter rains, but uncertain summer rains; the

latter being heavier and more frequent over the northern limits of this region, where they bear a large ratio to the total fall during the year. (Met. obs. Adelaide observ., 1880.) [1119

Rainfall in France. At the last meeting of the Meteorological society of France, a paper was read by Mr. Moureaux, showing that the law of the rains south of the central plateau of France is independent of the meteorological conditions on the oceanic side. This shows the importance of being in direct connection with Algiers. - (Nature, March 22.) [1120

H. A. H.

GEOGRAPHY. (Arctic.)

Arctic notes. In the year-book of the Verein für vaterländishe naturkunde in Württemberg, Zeller has an article on the Algae and zoophytes of the Nordenskiöld Sea, collected by Graf Waldburg-Zeil.

Nature (vol. xxviii. no. 3) gives a woodcut of the Russian meteorological station at the Lena mouth. The Leo is announced to sail for Point Barrow, June 12, from San Francisco. The steamer Proteus is to go to the relief of the Lady Franklin Bay party, and is expected to sail about the 20th inst., or as soon as she can be joined by U.S.S. Yantic, which is to act as tender, and to utilize as far as possible the scientific opportunities of the voyage. -W. H. D. [1121

(Africa.)

A

African notes. In spite of the disastrous ending of the Flatter's expedition, two more parties are planned by the French for Saharan exploration, under Col. Bernard and F. Foureau. According to a recent despatch from Wargla, four members of Flatter's party are still alive as prisoners among the Tuaregs. -In western Africa the active French advance has met with opposition. Dr. Bayol was refused permission to continue on his way to Kaarta, and has returned to Bafulabe on the Senegal. Col. Berguis-Desbordes writes from the upper Niger, that, after his losses on the way there, he must at once return to the coast unless immediately re-enforced. sketch of the rapid progress of the French in this region is given by J. Ancelle in Rev. de géogr., 1883, 161-183. R. Flegel writes from Lagos under date of March 20, 1883, of his safe return from Adamaua and the source of the Benue; his farther journey was cut short by lack of means. The International Kongo association has despatched Lieut. v. Kerkhoven from England with supplies for the parties in the field. It is stated that he takes a number of carrier-pigeons with which to keep up communication from the interior with Zanzibar; but this must be a mistake. A general review and map of the later explorations in the Kongo basin is given in Peterm. mitth., 1883, 177. News has been received from Dr. Pogge at Mukenge, on his way to the west coast, after parting from Lieut. Wissmann in the farther interior. Dr. Holub is about to start for southern Africa after a course of special geographic study; he proposes to go northward from the Cape to the lake district. Giraud and Thomson, recently entering Africa from Zanzibar, have been heard from in good condition, a short way on their respective journeys. Revoil has left Somali-land for the Zanzibar region. - The French and Italian exploration about Shoa and Assab is still very active in spite of the unattractive climate of these districts. At Assab nearly all the drinking-water has to be distilled from the sea. — - Schuver, the Dutch explorer, arrived in Kartum last December, and Dr. Junker is expected there shortly from his journeys in the far

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Heard Island. The U.S. S. Marion, Commander Terry, last year went to this seldom-visited island in the southern Indian Ocean (lat. 53° 20′ S., long. 73° 10 E.) to search for the crew of the whaler Trinity, not heard from for eighteen months. The rescue was successful; and on Jan. 13, 1882, the men were taken from the island after over a year's endurance of excessive hardships. Ensign Chambers gives an interesting account of the expedition. The island was discovered in 1853 by an American, Capt. Heard, who believed it to be afloat, as he had sailed over its position repeatedly on former voyages;' but its firm anchorage is pretty well established by the presence of an active volcano, about six thousand feet high, seen in moderate eruption by the crew of the Trinity; and its antiquity is proved by marks of former glacial action which date somewhat before Capt. Heard's voyages. The climate of the island is extremely severe. Snow-squalls were of daily occurrence even in midsummer, and the air was seldom clear enough to show the mountain summit. Seacurrents pass the island from north to south. It is supposed from the appearance of clouds, and from the flight of birds and departure of sea-elephants, that an uncharted island must lie sixty or one hundred miles south of Heard; and it is even said that a certain sealing-captain has discovered an island in that direction, the position of which he keeps a secret in the interest of his trade. (Proc. Ü. S. naval inst., ix. 1883, 121.) W. M. D. [1123

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Indian Ocean.-On his return from Japan in April-May, 1881, G. Liebscher took samples of the water in the Bay of Bengal (about lat. 5° N.) and Arabian Sea (near lat. 15° N.), finding the specific gravity of the former at 60° F., 1.0255 to 1.0258, and its percentage of salt 3.29 to 3.34; for the latter, 1.0264 to 1.0276, and 3.40 to 3.52. (Mitth. erdk. Halle, 1882, 139.) W. M. D. [1124

BOTANY. Cryptogams.

Diseases of the vine. - The Observations sur le Phylloxera et sur les parasitaires de la vigne, published under the, direction of the French academy, contains a long and valuable paper by Cornu on Peronospora viticola B. and C., which has within a few years been introduced into the vineyards of Europe from this country. After an elaborate statement of the history of the discovery of the Peronospora and its spread to Europe, there follows a full account of the development and pathological action of the fungus, beautifully illustrated. The work concludes with an account of the treatment and prevention of the disease, and a comparison of the grapemould with those of the potato and lettuce plants.

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glycogen of Peziza vesiculosa is identical with that found in the livers of mammalia. In the Ascomycetes, it is at first diffused throughout the whole young plant, but afterwards accumulates in the asci, and is apparently transformed during the maturing of the spores. When not in too small quantities, glycogen may be recognized microchemically by its semi-fluid consistency, the absence of any reaction with osmic acid, Millon's reagent, and iron salts, and by the reddish-brown or mahogany color on the application of iodine, which color disappears on heating, and reappears on cooling. w. G. F. (1126

Spores and spore-cases in Erian rocks. - Dr. J. W. Dawson spoke of the discovery many years since, by the geological survey of Canada, in a pyroschist or bituminous shale at Kettle Point on Lake Huron, referred to the horizon of the Marcellus beds of the New-York series, of vast numbers of minute disks, which were recognized as the spore-cases of some cryptogamous plant, and were by him named Sporangites huronensis. More recently Profs. Orton of Columbus, O., Williams of Cornell university, and Clarke of Northampton, Mass., have found, in the Erian (Devonian) and lower carboniferous shales of Ohio and New York, beds replete with these organisms; and Prof. Orton has shown reasons for believing that they are connected with filamentous stems found in the same layers, and, moreover, that they have contributed largely to the bituminous matter present in the shales in which they occur. Similar bodies have also been found associated with the curious plants known as Psilophyton and Trochophyllum. Still more recently specimens from the Erian of Brazil have been sent to the author by Mr. Derby of the Brazilian geological survey, which seem to throw additional light on the bodies in question. These specimens present oval or rounded bodies in the form of flattened sacs, containing numbers of rounded disks similar to those above referred to, and so closely resembling the utricles, or spore-sacs, of the rhizocarps as to make it extremely probable that they belonged to plants of this class. Should this conjecture be sustained by subsequent inquiries, it would show that this peculiar group is of much greater antiquity than hitherto supposed, and that these plants were extremely abundant in the shallow waters of the Erian period. Dr. Dawson further suggested probable relations of these singular fruits not only with Psilophyton, but also with other Erian and Silurian plants. (Royal soc. Canada: meeting May 23.) [1127

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ZOÖLOGY. Mollusks.

Land-snails from Bering Strait and Alaska. -Drs. Aurel Krause and Reinhardt enumerate and describe the land-snails obtained by the Krause brothers in the Chukchi peninsula and in southeastern Alaska. Seven species were obtained from the former locality, and nineteen in the latter. Most of them are common to both shores. As a matter of much interest to American conchologists, the species new to the fauna of the United States, as determined by them, may be mentioned. Omitting mere varieties, these are: Limax hyperboreus West., Conulus pupula Gould (originally described from Japan), Pupa Gredleri Cless., P. Krausiana Reinh., P. arctica Wall., Succinea chrysis West., Vallonia asiatica Neville (Yarkand, described by Neville as a variety of V. costata), and Pupa edentula Drap. (probably). Dr. Reinhardt also describes, under the name of Vallonia gracilicosta, a small shell obtained by Krause on the Little Missouri River, while

returning home by the route of the Northern Pacific railway (Sitz. Berl. ges. naturf. fr., 3, 1883). In the same connection, the following species of the Vega expedition are of interest for American students. Westerlund, in advance of the final publication, describes as new, from the same region, Helix ruderata var. opulens, collected at Bering Island; Succinea annexa and chrysis; and Pisidium arcticum, nivale, and glaciale, from Port Clarence, Alaska. (Nachr. deutsch. mal. ges., April, 1883.) [1128

W. H. D.

A man-eating mollusk. - A minute pulmonate, Cionella acicula, was not long since reported as occurring in myriads in the cavities of cancellate bones in a prehistoric British cemetery at Chichester. It has now been found of unusual size, by Director Fischer, in human skulls from comparatively recent interments at Bernberg. (Nachr. deutsch. mal. ges., April, 1883.) W. H. D. [1129 Monograph of Onchidium. The last-received part of Semper's land-mollusks of the Philippines contains the continuation of an extremely thorough monograph of Onchidium, -the genus of slugs in which that author made the discovery of the extraordinary dorsal eyes,' and which seems to be prolific in species in the east. The new genus Onchidina is established for O. australis Gray, which exhibits marked anomalies in the genitalia. (Semper's reisen,, heft iv.) W. H. D. [1130

6

VERTEBRATES.

Centripetal stimulation of the vagus. - In a previous paper (Wiener sitzungsb., lxxxv., 282), Knoll had pointed out that the vagus nerve may be stimulated by the making or breaking of its own current, when the nerve, for instance, is raised from the moist tissue upon which it lies, or, after being raised, is again lowered into the wound. This is especially the case after exposure, or section, or other mechanical injury. The effect of such a stimulation is, in the great majority of cases, the production of an expira'tory standstill, or a flattening of the respiratory curve toward the expiratory position. In many cases the action is not confined to a mere inhibition of the inspiratory discharge, but causes an active expiratory effort. In this, his second contribution to the theory of the innervation of the breathing movements, he submits the action of electrical, mechanical, chemical, and thermal stimuli upon the central end of the vagus to a new investigation, taking care to avoid any secondary effects arising from stimulation of the nerve by its own current. The experiments were made upon rabbits, to some of which a minimal dose of chloral was given. The effect of induction shocks was found to vary with the strength of current used, minimal currents causing a short expiratory pause, or a displacement of the curve toward the expiratory position; stronger currents giving inspiratory effects. During the period of vagus stimulation, although there is always a certain amount of dyspnoea, nevertheless the accessory respiratory muscles do not come into action, and, if previously in action, become relaxed during the stimulation. Neither anaemia of the brain, caused by blocking off the blood-current, nor respiratory reflexes from other afferent nerves, stimulation of the nasal mucous membrane, for instance, produce any breathing movements during the inspiratory standstill which follows strong electrical stimulation of the vagus. From these facts he concludes, that, during such stimulation of the vagus, the irritability of the respiratory centre toward other stimuli, especially natural stimuli, is greatly depressed. He finds that the effects obtained may differ according

to the direction of the current, the portion of the nerve stimulated, the condition of the nerve and of the respiratory centre, -conditions which may explain the contradictory results obtained by those who have worked at the subject. Mechanical stimuli produced in various ways gave always, as the primary effect, either complete standstill in inspiration, or strong displacement of the curve toward the inspiratory position. Chemical stimuli inhibited respiration in the expiratory phase. Thermal stimuli had apparently no effect. Warming the vagus in 0.6% salt solution or oil from 140-2° to 45°-60° C. had no action on the respiration. (Wiener sitzungsb., lxxxvi., iii. 48.) W. H. H. [1131

Activity of the yolk during impregnation. Kupffer recalls the active movement of a protoplasmatic hillock on the surface of the ovum of Petromyzon, observed by August Müller, Calberla, and himself, immediately after the spermatozoon entered the yolk. He now reports a similar observation on Bufo. In this animal several spermatozoa enter the ovum; but those that reach the egg a few minutes after spawning are not able to pierce the egg-membrane. One then sees little protuberances arise on the surface of the yolk, and stretch up the membrane. Opposite each protuberance are one or two spermatozoa, their heads towards the yolk. It appears as if the yolk were actively striving to reach the spermatozoa. In a few minutes the protuberances sink back. In both Bufo and Petromyzon there appears this secondary act of impregnation after the male elements (or element) have penetrated the yolk.(Sitzungsb. akad. wiss. München, 1882, 608.) C. s. M. [1132

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Growth of the skull in dogs.-M. Lacassagne having communicated to the biological society of Lyons a paper on the cranial dimensions in man in their relation to social condition and intellectual culture, Dr. Arloing has followed up the subject upon dogs. Discarding the merely instinctive faculty, attention was paid only to the intellectual. The subject of weight and race was so far considered as to render it easy to make allowance for these, since the average weight of the well-known breeds is known everywhere. The following table tells its own story:—

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The brain of a small ape weighs from seventy to seventy-five grams. We see from the table that the weight of the head is doubled, while the weight of the brain is eight times greater, between the extremities of the table. The difference would be much greater if we could compare the weight of the brain with that of the body. The conclusion reached is, that education increases the dimensions of the skull in animals as in man. (Bull. soc. anthrop. Lyon, i. 44.) [1133

J. W. P.

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66

Criminality in France. - Society, in its moral and social aspect," says M. Lacassagne, "is divided into three strata, the frontal, the parietal, and the occipital; the latter including the most of our race." The causes which operate upon the human organism are cosmic and social; or, as M. Lacassagne has it, physico-chemic, biologic, and social. The first includes temperature, physical forces, aliment, etc., acting, first, upon the posterior part of the brain, thence forward, influencing the instinct to control the intelligence. The second includes sex, age, heredity, temperament, acting equally on all parts of the brain, and giving to the sentiments, thoughts, and acts a characteristic peculiarity. The last, acting from the front brain backwards, modifies the ideas before changing the sentiments.

The penal code of France divides infractions of the laws against persons and property into contraventions, délits, and crimes; and, for seeking out and punishing these, an army of two hundred thousand individuals is engaged, costing 41,694,720 francs, against 26,034,016 for primary public instruction.

M. Lacassagne, after reviewing the works of Quetelet, Guerry, Maury, and Ferri, on the statistics and philosophy of crime, proceeds to furnish, in a series of curves, the results of his own researches. It is well observed, that, in studying a series of years, notice must be taken of the changes in the law and the multiplication of recognized infractions. Crimes against property vary with the price of breadstuffs, the operation of tariff, warm summers, rigorous winters. Crimes against persons are shown to be influenced by revolutions, elections, the wine-crop, etc.

The relation of crime to the season of the year presents some interesting facts, the table showing a criminal calendar in which the maxima of crimes against property are placed opposite to the minima of crimes against persons. The former have their maximum in December, their minimum in April and June. The latter have their minimum in November, and their maximum in June. Each crime is then scrutinized by months, according to the causes affecting it, such as heat and cold, wine-production, harvests, forced indoor life in winter, wandering life in summer, the length of the day and night, fêtes, holy days, pay-days, reaping-time, vintage-time, salaries to domestics etc. For instance, infanticide is large in January, February, March, and April, as the effect of the aphrodisiac months, while abortions, usually at the fifth month, are numerous in January; conceptions of harvest-time, at their maximum in March; conceptions of the new-wine season, high in May; conceptions of Christmas holidays, high in June; con

ceptions of the carnival, ascending in September, October, November, and December, owing to the aphrodisiac months.

Assassination, murder, parricide, poisoning, theft, are similarly treated, and the relation of crime to sex and illiteracy examined. M. Lacassagne closes his discussion with observations on the prevention of crime.-(Bull. soc. anthrop. Lyon, i. 48-71.) J. W. P. [1134

EARLY INSTITUTIONS.

Writing among the Romans.— M. Havet points out the curious fact, that Greece had a literature before she had the means of recording it, while Rome had the means before she had the literature. It is certain that in Greece literature existed at first independently of writing; but in Rome writing was in use during the period of the kings, when there was no literature. This fact being established, M. Havet asks whether writing was introduced during the time of the kings, or before that time, i.e., before the foundation of Rome. He then goes on to show how the Romans must have used writing before they came into contact with the Etruscans, because they did not adopt the Etruscan alphabet. Writing must have been in use, he concludes, in the earliest period of the history of Rome, if not before the foundation of the city. Then he argues, if this is the case, what right have we to suppose that the early kings are fabulous? If they knew how to write, it is probable that they put their names in writing. The question is raised, What did the Romans do with their writing, if they did not use it to record events which actually happened? They had no literature to give it a raison d'être. The argument is an interesting one. - (Rev. polit. et lit., 24 Mars, 1883.) D. W. R. [1135

Beginnings of taxation in France. M. Vuitry continues his studies in the financial history of France, and describes the origin and establishment of state taxes as distinguished from the revenues of a feudal sovereign. These, he tells us, must not be regarded as state taxes. He defines state taxes as taxes levied upon all citizens for the purpose of defraying public expenses. During the early feudal period there were no public expenses: therefore there were no state taxes. The expenditures of the feudal sovereign were private expenditures; his revenues were private revenues, derived chiefly from his estates, or from privileges attached to his person. It was not until the fourteenth century (1328-55) that state taxes, properly so called, were instituted. M. Vuitry explains how this came to pass. (Séan. trav. de l'acad., AvrilMai, 1883.) D. W. R. [1136

INTELLIGENCE FROM AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC STATIONS.

GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS.

Bureau of ethnology.

Note on certain Maya and Mexican manuscripts. Professor Cyrus Thomas has recently prepared a paper for the bureau, on a plate of the Codex Cortesianus, reproduced in plates 9 and 10 of Rosny's Les documents de l'antiquité Américaine, and plate 44 of the Fejervary Codex (Kingsborough, vol. iii.). For the benefit of scholars devoting attention to these manuscripts, a brief résumé of his explanation of one discovery that he has made in regard to them is here given. As facsimile plates cannot be intro

duced here, plans of the portions referred to are figured on the assumption that those particularly interested have access to the works in which the plates are to be found.

Mr. Thomas maintains, with a strong array of evidence, that these plates are simply a kind of condensed calendar, and that the outer looped line of dots and day-symbols in each is a mere table by which to tell the days on which the weeks (of thirteen days) for the entire year begin.

If we examine carefully the rows of large dots, and the day-symbols in the large outer space of the Cortesian plate, as given by Rosny, we shall find, that, taken together, they form but one continuous line,

making one outward and two inward bends or loops at each corner, as shown in fig. 1.

In this figure the dots correspond with those in the plate; the circle, with the day-symbols. The numbers

line (as 1 Cauac, 1 Eb, etc.) are always the first days of the Maya week, and those numbered 13 (as 13 Chuen, 13 Kan, etc.) are always the last days of the week.

The Cauac years alone have been referred to; but this calendar is made to answer equally as well for the Kan, Muluc, and Ix years. For the Kan years we begin with 1 Kan (No. 11) in the top row; for the Muluc years, with 1 Muluc (No. 21) in the row next to the left margin; and, for the Ix year, with 1 Ix (No. 31) in the bottom

row.

The proof of Professor Thomas's interpretation of this part of the Cortesian plate' seems to be conclusive.

The signification of plate 44 of the Fejervary Codex he claims to be substantially the same as the other; and that the outer looped line shown in our fig. 2 is constructed on precisely the same plan, and for the same purpose; the only difference being, that here only the first day of the week is given, and that the days are Mexican instead of Maya.

The twenty circles at the corners and loops containing numbers indicate and replace Mexican day-symbols, as shown in the following list:

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Starting with 1 Cauac (No. 1) on the right side, and running upward toward the top, along the row of dots next the right-hand margin, we reach 13 Chuen (No. 2). Just above this is 1 Eb (No. 3). Running inward toward the centre, along the row of dots, we reach 13 Kan (No. 4). Then passing upward, we come to 1 Chicchan (No. 5); then outward along the row of dots, toward the outer corner, to 13 Caban (No. 6); thence to the left to 1 Ezanab (No. 7); then inward to 13 Oc (No. 8); then to the left to 1 Chuen (No. 9); then outward to 13 Akbal (No. 10); and so on around toward the left.

The number of the day is usually indicated by a numeral symbol,- one dot for 1, and two short lines and three dots for 13.

By commencing with Cauac, and writing the twenty Maya days in succession, repeating them in the same order, numbering them from 1 to 13, and 1 to 13 again, or by referring to table V. of Professor Thomas's Study of the manuscript Troano (fig. 11), the reader will find that the days numbered 1 of the looped

4 Xochitl.

5 Acatl.

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6 Miquiztli. 7 Quiahuitl. 14 Itzcuintli.

The four in the larger circle, italicized in the list, are the four year-bearers or year-names.

By making a list of Mexican days in succession, beginning with Cipactli, and numbering from 1 to 13 as before, and following the line in the order

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FIG. 2.-SCHEME OF THE FEJERVARY PLATE.

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of numbering, as shown in fig. 2 (around to the left), we find that each day is the first of a Mexican week.

Mr. Thomas also gives interpretations of the outer parts, but these are too long and intricate to be given in this brief article.

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