The last Congressional action relative to an international exposition was by Act of May 22, 1908,33 accepting the invitation of the Japanese Government to participate in the Exposition to be held in that country in 1912 (afterwards postponed by Japan to 1917). It provided for a preliminary survey by a commission of three Commissioners-General who should act under the directions of the Secretary of State.

GAILLARD HUNT.

[The next section will deal with the subdivisions of the Department.]

33 35 Stat., 183.

THE CHINESE NATIONALITY LAW, 1909

1

The Chinese nationality law recently passed is of considerable interest as illustrating the tendency of China to fall in line with modern countries in respect to law-making, and her attempt to remedy by her independent legislation a phase of the anomalous situation growing out of her seventy years' intercourse with the outer world. The law aims at two points, (1) to define the status of nationality and (2) to minimize the abuse of the lax naturalization laws of some foreign countries as applied in their colonies near China.

With regard to the first point, the law supplies a long-felt want. Before China came in contact with European countries, Chinese nationality was based upon the principles of indissoluble natural allegiance and of disability of emigration. A Chinese "was not free to go beyond the border of the seas" and when he succeeded in leaving the country he still remained a Chinese in the eyes of the law, though he had been duly naturalized in a foreign land; wherefore, if he returned to China, the authorities might or might not punish him for violating the prohibition, but in neither case was he clothed with the character of an alien so as to entitle him to the protection of his adopted country. This doctrine of perpetual allegiance, tolerable as it might have been at a time when nations were sufficient unto themselves, was incompatible with the adventurous and commercial spirit of the nineteenth century. Shortly after the Opium War, the people of the two southern provinces of China, Kwangtung and Fukien, began to emigrate in large numbers to foreign lands in quest of wealth, and not a few were naturalized there. China realized that changed conditions, coupled with her military weakness, did not warrant the pushing forward of her claims to their allegiance, and, moreover, she soon discovered the benefit derived from the emigration of her subjects; but she would not formally sanction the right of

1 See Supplement, p. 160.

emigration, much less the right of alienage, for that would amount to the abandonment of her traditional view of perpetual allegiance, so essential to the Chinese version of the "Divine Right" theory. The Chinese Government considered the principles of allegiance as too sacred to be subject to change. All they would do was to slacken the rigidity of its operation and give provincial authorities discretion to dispose of cases in such a way as circumstances might demand. In other words, China, instead of remodelling her nationality system to meet the changed conditions of the time, simply. allowed matters to drift. The result of such a state of things was that for nearly a century the Chinese nationality system was an anachronism, accompanied by serious difficulties to the government and the people. Taking advantage of the vagueness of the system, not a few unscrupulous provincial officials decided nationality cases at their own caprice and for their own benefit. In many instances they refused to recognize the acquired nationality, thus involving the country in international controversies; and in others, they considered the mere fact of emigration to be evidence of denationalization, regardless of the hardship to which individuals were thereby subjected. Where the question of inheritance was involved, a shrewd party would also not be slow to call into play all old theories of nationality that would oust the rightful owners from possession. Now, with the passage of this law all these grievances and abuses are bound to become things of the past. The law fixes the criterion of Chinese nationality in precise and definite language so that individuals can at all times know to what country they belong.

Concerning the second point, namely the mitigation of abuses of the lax naturalization laws of some foreign countries, the law takes a long step toward securing the object in view. For many decades the authorities of the European colonies near China and especially the Portuguese authorities at Macao have, partly for political and partly for pecuniary reasons, granted naturalization certificates to Chinese who have not been out of China and who simply have to allege that they were born in one of those colonies. Having secured this naturalization they continue to reside in China without disclosing their change of allegiance. They enjoy all civil and political

rights as native subjects of China, and in some cases they even hold official positions of honor and trust. It is only when they are involved in law suits, which generally arise through their own fault, or when they desire to enjoy such privileges as are secured to foreigners by treaties, that they declare their foreign citizenship. What is worse, the moment their declaration is made, they thanks to the institution of consular jurisdiction in China — are out of reach of the Chinese court in respect both to what they have done before and to what they may hereafter do. The last fifty years are full of instances of cases abruptly dismissed, or transferred to the consulai courts, simply because a consul declared that the defendants were naturalized subjects of his country. Respecting the control of these men, China has experienced great difficulty, but in spite of her efforts has failed to effect an understanding with foreign governments. It was not until the passage of this law, that an adequate means was found to grapple with this ever irritating evil. The law is purely remedial. Supplemental Provisions 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 of the law require all persons who have in one way or another lost Chinese nationality to report the fact to the proper authorities, otherwise they will be deemed to have remained Chinese to all intents an purposes. Articles XI and XII provide certain essential conditions for the complete denationalization of subjects and refuses to recognize that of those who have not obtained authorization. Under the operation of these rules, nationality can no longer be treated as a matter of convenience, to be taken on and thrown off to meet changing circumstances, nor can it be resorted to as a dexterous means wherewith to evade obligations. Thus it is apparent that the law strikes an effective and proper blow at an abuse which has caused great annoyance to China and by whose removal, as can not be too strongly emphasized, the amity of China with the outer world wil be greatly strengthened.

But important as the above reasons are, they were not the immediate causes of the enactment of the law. Nor did it owe its birth to the argument that in view of the constitutional movement it was necessary to define the status of nationality in order to determine who were the qualified voters. The immediate occasion for

the law came from without. Toward the end of 1907 the Dutch government attempted to force naturalization upon Chinese residents in Java. The Chinese Government knew that, as forced naturalization is, in the language of Oppenheim, an international delinquency, it might rely on diplomacy to prevent the execution of the Dutch scheme, but it also knew that the immediate promulgation of a nationality law was a necessity in that it would forestall the oftrepeated argument that "China has not a proper nationality code. wherewith to justify her claim to the allegiance of her subjects abroad." In the beginning of 1908, consequently, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was commanded to prepare the necessary legislation, and the present law was the outcome.

We shall now attempt to offer a few words of explanation on the more important features of the law. At the outset it may be pointed out that the law is based upon the principle of parentage pure and simple. A child takes the nationality of the father; but should this not be clearly determined, it follows that of the mother. It is only when the nationality of both parents is unascertainable that the principle of the place of birth is resorted to. Such a position is a natural one for China to take. On the one hand, she has a population which, though not so large as the present estimates indicate, is nevertheless too large to admit new additions from without, and on the other, she begins to realize as she never did before that her children born abroad will be a source of strength to her, if properly fostered and utilized. Hence, when the law was being prepared, the framers, as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs pointed out in their memorial to the Throne, had two objects in view, namely, (1) to "set up high qualifications for naturalization so that only desirable aliens should be admitted to Chinese nationality, and (2) to keep natural-born Chinese from falling under foreign dominion."

One of the most interesting features of the law is that it imposes more limitations on the political rights of naturalized subjects than the similar laws of any other country. Article VIII provides that a naturalized subject is incapable of being enrolled in the army or holding any of the higher executive or legislative positions for twenty years after naturalization; and even then only by Imperial permission. The explanation of this seemingly harsh rule is found in