such have been much less frequent than before, and have been promptly punished. In 1907 all officials were called upon to acquaint themselves with provisions in various treaties affecting Christianity, and to secure the better protection of Christians, both foreign and native, in their respective districts. Missionaries are being consulted by local officials everywhere and are occupying important places as physicians and teachers and official advisers.

The almost simultaneous deaths of the old Empress-Dowager and the young but feeble Emperor, whom she had for the preceding ten years kept in leading strings, occurred in November, 1908. The latter's death had been long expected; but the Empress-Dowager's seventy-fourth birthday had been celebrated less than a fortnight before and there seemed to be no apprehensions of her early death. The new Emperor selected was, according to recent custom, an infant, son of Prince Chun, who has been prominent in the affairs of government since 1900. It was he who went on the penitential mission to Berlin to atone for the assassination of the German ambassador. He has been a conspicuous actor in bringing about the reforms of recent years. He was made regent for his son and has since been the real ruler of China, though he himself is a young man, - less than thirty years old. He is a younger brother of the preceding Emperor. The dynastic change had little influence on the policies of the government. All that had been done was endorsed and the advance has been continued along all lines at about the same rapid rate.

The questions of reform in China and the adoption of occidental civilization had been agitating the country during the last decade of the nineteenth century. The Emperor's conversion and his attempt to force reform too rapidly was what led to the coup d'etat of 1898. During the year of exile while foreign troops occupied the capital many Imperial edicts gave prospects of reform. They dealt chiefly with changes in the educational system, abolition of useless cffices and the selection of competent officials, and the reorganization and instruction of the army. The movements along these lines have

continued.

Yuan Shikai, who succeeded Li Hung Chang in the Viceroyalty

of Chili, engaged Japanese officers to drill his provincial troops and urged the central government to accept an offer made by Japan to lend a Japanese general to reorganize the entire military system. To meet the expenses of this military rehabilitation as well as the cost of administrative reforms, Sir Robert Hart advised increasing the land tax, and steps were taken to do so. The progress in improvement of the foreign drilled Chili troops excited the admiration of foreign military attachés. Viceroys in other places began to follow the example. In 1905 a decree from the throne called on nobles to give their sons a military education. This has gone far to raise the calling, previously despised, in public estimation. The military spirit has grown rapidly.

The year 1906 was most remarkable for changes in all directions. Reforms actually begun were far more radical than those only advised in 1898 and for which the advisors lost their heads. The adoption of foreign models in the army and administration, as well as in education, industry, economics, and political life, was begun in earnest. Centralization of power over the provincial armies was begun and has advanced so that China's army is becoming national. A little more than a year ago the Emperor assumed supreme command of the army and navy, which are organized after the German model, and are being trained by Japanese officers. Military schools have been established in various provinces, and each year a number of men are sent to Japan for military instruction. Should occasion offer, the Chinese army will surprise the world after a little more training as much as did the Japanese in 1904. There are now in the army between five and six hundred thousand men of whom some 160,000 are already trained. Plans are on foot to increase this efficient number rapidly so that by 1913 there will be 400,000 and by 1920, 1,185,000. It is reported that the Chinese Government has made a proposition to Lord Kitchener to take charge of her army and complete its reorganization and training.

Administrative reforms have gone hand in hand with military. In 1904 several useless posts were abolished for sake of economy. Next year the Viceroy at Tientsin advocated the payment of good salaries to officials, abolition of Manchu privileges, promotion of

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A timredd markt zu fered me about the middle of 1907 when the infiense of the premressive element seemed about to be undermined by comption Ent they regained ascendency before the end of the year. Many reforms were not satisfactory. They went too far and too fast for some and not far enough or fast enough for others. At the very end of the year 1908 came the startling announcement that the progressive Yuan Shikai had been dismissed, his suffering from rheumatism being given as the cause. But it was thought that was not serious enough to constitute sufficient reason. A new reaction was apprehended. But a progressive successor has continued his policies.

The new spirit has grown too strong to be repressed. A new patriotism stimulated by Japanese example and accomplishments pervades all classes. Students returning brought back philosophical political treatises which were translated and widely circulated. The theories of Rousseau are being discussed freely by the public press.

Progress and changes in education began early in the decade, in fact, important steps had been taken before the Boxer troubles. In 1902 came edicts encouraging western sciences; and colleges had been opened in eleven provinces. The returning national pride in 1903 expressed itself by excluding for a time all European and American

instructors from the University of Peking; but the restriction was removed after a few years. By 1905 students returning from Europe and America found their foreign studies a key, no longer a bar, to advancement. In this year a decree swept away the old systerm of education based entirely on the classics and added the western learning. The traditional system of public examination in the classics as a condition of obtaining employment in the state was swept away everywhere, as it had been in a few places by the final protocol of 1901. Numerous schools and colleges not only for men, but for women also, including normal and technical schools, were established. No complaint is made of lack of funds for the purpose. At Canton, the old examination hall was removed to make place for a college consisting of three blocks of buildings. Temples are being converted into schools.

For fear the passion for western learning and its official adoption might lower the Chinese classics in common estimation, a decree of 1907 elevated Confucius to a higher rank in Chinese worship than he had hitherto occupied, and another decree a week later declared that Chinese studies should be considered superior to western learning.

Among the phenomenal reform decrees of 1906 was one abolishing the use of opium gradually, to be complete within ten years. Regulations to effect this were published in November. Both cultivation and smoking were to cease, a little at a time, within that period, under penalty of banishment. In the meantime smokers were to be registered; shops were to be gradually closed; official returns of sales were to be made; medicines to cure the habit were to be distributed; all officials, except those in the palace or of great age, were called upon to abandon the habit. Arrangements were to be made with foreign governments for the restriction and gradual abolition of its import, for its higher taxation and for the enforcement of the new regulations in the foreign settlements. These regulations are moderate compared with others issued at various times during the last century. The temper of the people has changed; and enforcement is comparatively easy, so the regulations are being reasonably enforced and bid fair to accomplish their purpose in the time al

lotted. Even foreign governments, especially the British Governinent of India, are lending their hearty cooperation. In some places, of course, enforcement is not so easy as in others. An international conference for the study and investigation of opium, its effects, and its abolition, sat at Shanghai in 1909. Its findings are assisting the effort to suppress the evil.66

But the most revolutionary of all the reforms China has undertaken is the adoption of constitutional government and the creation of a parliament. Following Japan's example of about a quarter of a century earlier, an Imperial Commission was sent in 1905 to study the governments of foreign countries. In July of the following year the commission returned and a committee of high dignitaries was appointed to consider its report.

An Imperial edict declared that the backward condition of China was due to a lack of confidence between the throne, the ministers, and the masses. Foreign powers, it continued, became wealthy and powerful by granting constitutions to the masses and allowing all to participate in the government. A new commission was appointed in 1907 to make a special study of the systems of Great Britain, Germany and Japan, which were to be the chief models. Later decrees explained that the people must be taught patriotism and loyalty, and be given experience in local government before a share in the national could be given. The experiment made at Tientsin of allowing a town council to assist the regular city government was ordered to be imitated in the provincial capitals and gradually throughout the Empire.

It was declared that the formation of a regular national parliament was not then practicable. As a preliminary step, preparations were made to establish an Imperial assembly. It is for the present a consultative body, merely, with no real power except such as its individual members can exert. It is composed of the representatives of the different boards in Peking and nominees of the governors and viceroys of the provinces. In their individual capacity they have great influence. Many wished a speedy consummation of the plan

66 See article by Dr. Hamilton Wright in volume 3 of this JOURNAL and accompanying documents in the SUPPLEMENT.