few cures than by the many failures. Again, so strong and so imperceptible is the bias of partiality, that historians of honesty-Protestant and Romanist, Republican and Royalistsometimes record the same occurrences, inserting some details and omitting others, and thereby producing results so different as to make it hard to recognize any similarity between them.

1

188. Analogy meaning Likeness. — Analogy meant originally an Equality of Ratios, or Proportion. It is sometimes, however, loosely used to represent not so much proportion, as the similarity and regularity of natural phenomena. Thus we are said to infer by Analogy that "because there was frost last January, there will probably be frost next January," or, from the fact that our planet is inhabited, to infer that all planets are inhabited. This is simply the argument from Enumerative Induction, and the basis of it is "what has been will be."

The regular recurrence of natural phenomena impresses this reasoning most forcibly upon us, and there are few things past or present of which we feel more sure than of the sun's rising to-morrow, although to many of us the only ground of our confidence is that “it always has been so." But the force of such Analogy, if it is to be so called, varies (beside other considerations) with the number of instances observed; for while we feel confident of the sun's rising, we feel by no means confident in inferring, from the single instance of our planet, that other planets are inhabited. In this sense of the word, the argument from Analogy is the same thing as the argument from Induction.

1 Bishop Butler's "Analogy," Introduction.

189. Analogy meaning Similarity of Relations. - More frequently Analogy is used in its strict sense of Proportion to signify Similarity of Relations. Thus, " as a child is undeveloped in strength and language, so an infant State is undeveloped in political and military power, and in literature," is an Analogy. This and other similar Analogies between the individual and the State are deducible from past, and may or may not be contradicted by future, history.

190. Argument from Analogy basing itself on recognized Analogies mounts to others that are not recognized; thus, "As a child attains to youth and manhood, and in the end dies, so a State, after passing through a period of vigor and prosperity, must in the end decay." This is no argument at all, unless it can be shown that the same natural causes of decay which exist in a child exist also in a State. Though a State be like an individual in one or two points, the likeness need not extend to three or four, any more than salt need be sweet because it happens to resemble sugar in being white.

The Argument from Analogy therefore, so far as it is an argument at all, comes under the head of Induction. Otherwise it is not an argument, but a metaphorical illustration of an argument. Thus, "a metropolis is valuable, for it is to the country what the heart is to the human system, receiving and returning the elements of vitality," is an implied Analogy, and true. But "the metropolis is like the heart of the country, and therefore must not increase while the country does not increase," and "when the heart of the country ceases to beat, the country must cease to exist," are rhetorical falsehoods founded on the Metaphor "The metropolis is [not 'is like' the heart of the country."

191. Deduction, Technical Terms of. — In order to deduce a conclusion from two preceding statements1 (called Premises), the Premises must have some connection with one another. Nothing can be deduced from "all horses are quadrupeds," ," "all monkeys are bipeds." The two Premises must have something in common. This is called the Middle term. The Subject and Logical Predicate1 of the conclusion are called respectively the Minor and Major terms. The statements containing the Minor and Major terms are called respectively the Minor and Major Premises. Thus:

Two Premises and their conclusion are together called a Syllogism.

1 A statement is technically called in logic a proposition. No verb except the verb to be is allowed in a proposition. Thus we must not say,

but

All men desire happiness,

All men are beings desiring happiness.

Here, as in Grammar, “all men" is the subject, but there is a difference as to the meaning of "predicate" in Grammar and Logic.

In Grammar it is usual to give the name of predicate to whatever is said about the subject; e.g., are beings desiring happiness." In Logic, on the other hand, the verb to be is separated from the grammatical predicate, and is called the link or copula. After the copula has been deducted, the remainder of the grammatical predicate e.g., "beings desiring happiness”—may be called the logical predicate.

192. A Syllogism implies Inclusion. - A Syllogism (with certain exceptions which will be considered below) states that the Minor term is included in the Middle, and the Middle in the Major, and infers that the Minor is included in the Major; just as one might say that a spoon was in a cup, and the cup in a basin, and thence infer that the spoon was in the basin. This is of course true if the spoon is entirely in the cup, and the cup entirely in the basin. And in the same way, as long as the Minor is entirely included in the Middle, and the Middle in the Major, it will follow that the Minor will be entirely included in the Major. If the spoon be only partially in the cup, then, though the cup be entirely in the basin, we can only argue that that part of the spoon which is in the cup is in the basin. Similarly, if the Minor be only partly included in the Middle, we can only argue about that part of the Minor which may happen to be in the Middle; thus from

it only follows that that section of good men which is prosperous is respected.

If the spoon be entirely in the cup, but the cup only partially in the basin, we can infer nothing about the spoon. In the same way, if the Middle be only partially in the Major, we can infer nothing. Thus from

we can infer nothing. We only know that all good men constitute a section of honest men, and that a section of honest men is unfortunate; but whether the two sections are wholly or partly identical, there is no means of deciding.

If care be taken that the Minor be included in the Middle, and the Middle in the Major, the conclusion will be sound; and mistakes in Deduction, of which a large variety might be enumerated, will not occur.

193. Illustration of the inclusion of the Syllogism.The following diagrams carry out in detail the illustration just now given of the spoon, cup, and basin. The Minor term, or spoon, is represented by s n; the Middle term, or cup, by CU P; and the Major term, or basin, by BA S N. The conclusion is represented by the position of s n with respect to B ASN.

Minor wholly in Middle; Middle wholly in Major.

Result.

Minor s n entirely in B A S N, Major.

All men are endowed with reason;

All fools are men;

Therefore all fools are endowed with reason.