open and systematic, practised by the strong against the weak," is a fair definition of oppression. Here, as very often, more than two new notions are necessary for the purpose of defining.

7. Synonyms. One word can seldom be explained (otherwise than very roughly) by any other single word in the same language. Even if at first two words are identical in meaning, as perhaps pig and pork originally were, there is a constant tendency (34) to differentiate their meanings.

It is true that the English language, more than any other, is open to the charge of such superfluity. There is perhaps little difference between begin and commence, answer and reply, end and finish. The former in each pair of words is Teutonic, the latter of Latin origin, and the one is very nearly an exact translation of the other. But even here, though the meaning is nearly the same, the use of the words is not the same. Commence requires the verbal noun after it, whereas begin can take the infinitive instead. "They began to dance," but "they commenced dancing." Moreover begin is far more colloquial than commence. End is used with impersonal subjects; "the day has ended," not "finished," but "I have finished." Again, finish refers more to the result produced; "I have now ended (not so well finished) forty years of toil," but "I have finished (not ended) the book." Lastly, answer is more colloquial, and may sometimes imply more of retort, than reply.

So few then are the exceptions, that we may lay it down as a rule that no English word can be perfectly explained by any other single word. If synonyms be used to mean words of similar meaning, then they have an existence: but if they mean words of precisely the same meaning, then synonyms rarely or never occur.

Def. Synonyms are words that have not the same, but similar, meanings.

8. The use of Synonyms in defining. In eliciting the exact meaning of a word we are naturally brought into contact with synonyms. It is by eliminating synonyms that we draw nearer to the meaning of the word to be defined. Thus we draw nearer to the meaning of oppression by saying it is not the same as violence, or cruelty, or injustice. Each of these eliminations teaches us something, whereas we should learn nothing from saying "oppression is not the same as fame." One way then of preparing ourselves for the task of defining a word is to jot down a group of synonymous words. Thus, if we have to define pride, set down vanity, conceit, arrogance, assurance, presumption, haughtiness, and insolence. Then ascertain (1) what is the common quality pervading all these synonyms; (2) what are the special qualities in which pride differs from each of its synonyms. Thus (1) the common quality is an exaggerated sense of one's own worth as compared with the worth of others." But (2) the proud man is more indifferent to the opinion of others than the vain man; he has a more solid foundation of merit than the conceited man; the proud man will wait to be honored, and will seldom presume upon his own merits, or upon the yielding nature of others; he is not so selfishly exacting as the arrogant man, not so open in betraying his defect as the haughty man, not so brutally unfeeling as the insolent man; he is far too dignified to be accused of assurance.

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By this process we clear up the meaning not only of the word to be defined, but also of all the words in the synonymous group, and this with a brevity and an exactness which would be impossible if we took each word separately. The

I

Or

following words are intended to be explained and defined in this way by reference to their synonyms. Sentences are to be constructed containing the word to be defined. Some of these sentences will be correct, and may be called defining sentences; others will be incorrect (requiring some synonym, and not the word to be defined), and may be called eliminating sentences.

GROUP OF SYNONYMS.

(1) Presumptuous, (2) Insolent, (3) Haughty,

(4) Vain.

[(1)

WORD TO BE DEFINED.

Proud.

He has reason to be proud of his discoveries, his son, etc. (2) He was too proud to beg.

Defining Sentences.

Eliminating Sentences.

ask for the chief command.

(1) He was [ 1 ] enough to (Eliminates the dis

position to obtrude one's claims.)

(2) The brutal [2] of the drunken and exacting soldiery alienated the natives. (Eliminates brutal contempt for the rights of others.)

(3) The general, when requested to lay down his arms, [ 3 ly] replied, "Come and take them." (Eliminates contemptuous bearing.)

(4) The poet's [ 4 ] induced him to take every opportunity of reciting his works. (Eliminates desire for the admiration of others.)

SUMMARY. (1) Pride is a high opinion of the merits of one's self, or something connected with one's self. (2) It is

not pushing like presumption, not brutal like insolence, not openly contemptuous like haughtiness, not influenced by the desire of admiration like vanity.

Eliminating Sentences. (1) It is out of my [ 1 ] to oblige you. (Eliminates power in the sense of mere

ability.)

(2) I give you full [ 1 ] to release him. (Here authority could be used, and the elimination fails, showing that power sometimes includes authority.)

(3) A horse has the [ 2 ] of seven men. (Eliminates muscular power.)

(4) The blow descended with [ 3 ]. (Eliminates dynamic power.)

(5) I yielded to [ 3 ], not to argument. (Eliminates violence.)

Summary.(1) Authority is some kind of power. It is power resting upon right, and so, in a secondary sense, it is the weight rightfully attaching to a writer recognized as judicious. (2) It is not power in the sense of ability, not mere muscular power, not dynamic power, not power founded on violence.

GROUP OF SYNONYMS.

WORD TO BE DEFINED.

(1) Nation, (2) People, (3) Race, (4) Populace, (5) Population, (6) Family.

Defining Sentences.

Eliminating Sentences.

(2)

Tribe.

(1) The nation of Israel was composed of twelve tribes.

(2) The Bedouin, Red Indian, finny tribes, etc.

(3) I hate the whole tribe of para

sites.

(1) The three great [1] of

the ancient world represent respectively theology, philosophy, and law.

organization.)

(Eliminates magnitude and

This news was soon brought to the [2] on the
shore. (Eliminates people who are merely connected
by being in the same place at a given moment.)
The [2] of England ought to be proud of their
national history. (Eliminates people merely inhabit-
ing the same territory.)

(3) The English [ 2 ] is composed of several distinct
[3]. (Eliminates people connected by relation-
ship, but not living together isolated from others.)
(4) The clamor of the infuriated [ 4 ] drowned the
voice of the more respectable part of the nation.
(Eliminates people considered contemptuously.)

(5) The [ 5 ] of London is about three millions and a quarter. (Eliminates people considered numerically.) (6) The [ 6 ] is the most natural combination of individuals. (Eliminates people having the same father and mother.)