for nothing." She teaches them because she is required to, and the pupil learns them for the same reason. Teacher and pupil alike are heartily glad when they have finished the subject, only "finishing" it means for the former getting round to the point where she takes up the same monotonous "grind" again, and for the latter, the point where he is to take up similar "grinds" under the same kind of teacher. To suppose that work done under such conditions can be genuinely educative, that it can illuminate the mind, quicken the emotions, ennoble the ideals of the student, is absurd. There are two things which in the majority of cases such work may be counted on to accomplish add to the burden of meaningless facts which the pupil's memory is expected to carry, and intensify his longing for the time when he shall have done with school.

The specialization of teaching in the higher grades of the grammar school is urged, then, for the following reasons:

1. It renders possible that enrichment of the course of study in the higher grades of the grammar school requisite to make the work there genuinely educative.

2. It facilitates that promotion of a pupil which is made to depend primarily on his knowledge and capacity instead of on the calendar.

3. It facilitates the plan by which teachers are required to teach only those subjects for which they have a decided bent and of which they have special knowledge.

4. It enables the teacher to make specific and careful preparation for each day's work, so that her own mind may be constantly growing and her own interest in her subject constantly deepening.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT.

1. What is meant by the title of this chapter?

2. Show that the same argument which proves that specialists are desirable in the high school may be used to show that they are desirable in the upper grades of the grammar school.

3. Why are specialists not needed all through the grades?

4. What is meant by "the psychological epoch" which dates the transition from the system of concentration to that of specialization?

5. Explain and illustrate what is meant by the study of facts in their logical relations.

6. Enumerate the advantages of specialization in teaching. 7. Specify the objections to the existing system.

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS.

1. Do you accept the conclusions of this chapter?

2. Are there any obstacles in the way of introducing departmental instruction in the grammar-schools of your town?

3. What effect would departmental instruction in the grammarschool have on the training needed by teachers?

4. Is that fact an argument for, or against, the proposed change? 5. In German, French, and English schools of a corresponding grade is the instruction given by specialists?

CHAPTER XXII.

THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF HISTORY.

Educational Values and Methods.-The preceding chapter incidentally discussed the methods that should be employed in teaching various subjects. But in order that our knowledge of method may bear its proper fruit we ought to have definite ideas of the sort of benefits which the study of a subject may be expected to confer.

To know no more of the educational value of history, literature, arithmetic, grammar, geography, and so on, than that they tend to "develop the mind" is to know little to the point. As the doctor needs to ascertain the precise effect the various drugs may be expected to have on the body, so we need to determine the precise effect the study of different subjects will have on the mind. We begin the discussion by attempting to determine the educational value of history.

History (1) Increases One's Knowledge of Himself and His Fellows. Among the benefits to be derived from the study of history may be mentioned the enlargement of one's knowledge of himself and of human nature. As a child becomes conscious of other people through becoming conscious of himself, so he is able to explain the actions of others only in so far as he can refer them to motives such as he has himself experienced. And this is as true of the men and women whom he comes to know in history as it is of those whom he meets in every-day life.

What made

the Puritans leave their homes to brave the dangers of the sea and an unknown country? What made men who cared so much for religious freedom so willing to deprive others of it? These are questions relating to human nature, and if we are able to answer them, it is because we find something in ourselves which enables us to see that under similar circumstances we might have done the same thing. In like manner we should never be able to understand the civilization of China, its superstitious reverence for the past, its contemptuous rejection of everything that would imply a doubt of the perfect wisdom of antiquity, until we had made a study of our own lives and formed some idea of the influence which tradition exerts upon us. It may be said, with Froude, that "in history the outward fact is all that we can know, and that insight into the heart is impossible. . . . It often is so. But when it is so no true history is possible."1 True history is the outward fact and the motive that lay behind it.

The intelligent study of history, then, is a constant study of human nature, and the intelligent study of human nature is a persistent study of one's self.

(2) Develops Sympathy and Charity. Such a study of history tends to develop the capacity for intelligent sympathy and charity. It is worth a boy's while to learn that although Hamilton and Jefferson disliked each other intensely, each was devoted with his whole heart and soul to the well-being of the country, which he thought the policy of the other would ruin. It is worth his while to know that each of the two great generals of the Civil War was entirely clear that he was doing his duty, al

1 Educational Review, Vol. V. p. 182,

though one was fighting to preserve the Union and the other to destroy it. Such things are worth his knowing not only because they afford opportunity for the exercise of that "theorizing activity" in which we have found one of the ends of life, but because they help him to a point of view from which he may look upon the lives of the men and women about him with sympathetic eyes, and perhaps in after-years be able to realize that a man may oppose him with passionate intensity and nevertheless be as honest as himself.

(3) Makes us Realize that Nations, like Individuals, Must Act in Accordance with Moral Law. It be said may that such teaching tends to develop that invertebrate, gelatinous sentimentalism which leads silly people to make a hero of any man accused of crime. But if history is properly taught it will furnish an effective antidote against any such tendency. No other subject affords such splendid opportunities for showing that not what we think to be true but what really is true is the important matter. He would be a narrow and unsympathetic student who did not believe in Calhoun's perfect sincerity. But the great Nullifier's honesty could not change the character of the moral laws by which this world is governed. Slavery is wrong. A country that permits it permits a violation of moral law, collides with one of the fundamental realities of the world. Just as two trains cannot come into collision without disaster, so a man or a nation cannot violate a moral law with impunity. To say that all you have to do is to think you are right, that your honesty of conviction will save you from any unpleasant consequences, would be quite as absurd as for an engineer to say that if he only thinks the