that a few large crops of clover would deplete the soil and make it almost sterile. It would but for the fact that most of the nourishment appropriated by it is taken from the atmosphere by the nitrifying bacteria in the form of nitrogen and through the soil given to the plant for its sustenance. The work of these bacteria differs somewhat from that of the ordinary saprophyte in that they convert such nitrogen compounds as exist in the soil, as nitrites, etc., into nitrates, so that they can be readily appropriated by plants as nourishment. It is a well-known fact that in the absence of nitrogen plant life would become extinct in a very short time, and as a result all animal life would cease to exist. Now, we can easily understand the importance of the work of these bacteria in the food cycle.

It has been said that plants by building up compounds form the connecting link in the food cycle between the soil and animal life, while bacteria form the connecting link be tween animal life and the soil. Saprophytes do the first part of the work in this important process of decomposition, the nitrifying bacteria complete the work of manufacturing the dead remains of organic matter into nourishment for plants.

The soil is therefore literally a laboratory in which food for vegetation is manufactured by these ever-busy micro-organisms. Besides furnishing food for plants, saprophytes frequently antagonize and destroy disease-producing bacteria. And this property possessed by certain forms, has culminated in their introduction into sand filters for purifying drinking water. Even the water contained in sewerage can be thoroughly purified in this way, by the action of the nitrifying bacillus in combination with other forms.

It is now an actual fact that the purest water can be obtained by soil filters in which there are an abundance of non-pathogenic microorganisms, which destroy or hold in check all disease-producing microbes. The water supply of London, I understand is now obtained in this way. It is also through the istrumentality of the nitrifying microbes that the saltpeter beds of Chili and Peru are perpetuated.

Bacteria may be used for various utilitarian purposes. Not only does each plant possess its peculiar microbe from which it may draw its sustenance, but the various forms of fermentation, some of the products of which are invaluable to man, are the results of bacterial

activity.

Butter and cheese owe their flavor and aroma to microbes.

Some varieties are capable of imparting to these articles of diet a most agreeable flavor and a most delicious taste. It is said that Denmark controls the butter market of England. In Denmark the government has established scientific schools in which this subject has been closely studied, and as a result the butter made there is regarded as the best.

Many articles of diet may be favorably influenced by bacterial action, and, as we all know, they may also be spoiled in the same way. Articles of diet are quite frequently rendered poisonous by the action of saprophytes, for example, canned goods and the ice cream and milk poisoning which is of so com

mon occurrence.

Saprophytes possess another property which renders them of the greatest benefit to man. They antagonize and even destroy disease germs which are more delicate than they, and which, when mixed with them in water, as is frequently the case with the typhoid fever and other parasitic bacteria, frequently succumb and are destroyed by the non-diseaseproducing germs. If it were not for the work of the friendly saprophyte, most of the infectious diseases would be much more prevalent than they now are.

Some bacteria develop equally well as saprophytes and parasites; they are then called facultative parasites, but for the purpose of this paper the division first mentioned is all that is necessary.

It has been stated that saprophytes only require a temperature above the freezing point. They do, however, grow more luxuriantly at a higher temperature. Parasites cannot flourish at a temperature much below that of the human body, and as a result are more like house plants-sometimes very delicate and easily destroyed when not growing under favorable conditions. Herein is the manifestation of another wise provision of nature. For if it were not for this fact, pathogenic bacteria would be much more prevalent and numerous, and would counteract most of the work of the beneficent saprophyte, for neither plant nor animal could live because of them.

This is exemplified by the death of wild animals from tuberculosis when they are kept in confinement, also from the rapid extermination of certain families who are predisposed to consumption; not possessing any degree of immunity or resisting power, they

furnish a delightful home for the tubercle bacillus until forced by it to give up their lives.

Bacteria not only make the earth sweet and habitable for man, but they also assist in terminating his existence, and sometimes it seems that their well-known pathogenic properties act as a stimulus to induce man to observe sanitary laws and to keep his surroundings clean and therefore beautiful.

If there were no sickness, doubtless many unsightly piles of refuse would constantly be present to disturb the vision and irritate the olfactory organs. They are thus closely related to the sanitary science. To the pathogenic bacteria this science is doubtless indebted for its existence.

It is not only a fact that nearly all diseases of man are due to micro-organisms, but animals and plants are also liable to infectious diseases of various kinds. Many animals are liable to suffer from the diseases peculiar to man; so also is man liable to contract some of the diseases of the lower animals. Each and every plant has its parasitic diseases. These diseases may all be controlled by man. Since the etiology of disease is understood, the time is near when all disease in the vegetable and animal world can be prevented and possibly cured. Heretofore 50 per cent. of all deaths were caused by bacteria. In the future the percentage will materially aiminish, and the average life of man should be near three score and ten years.

After bacteriology attains to something near an exact science, man will be able to manipulate and control all manner of microbes, even to the utilization of some of the death-dealing ones and make them do him service. The saprophytes will be utilized in many industries, as has been intimated. Sanitation will become a science indeed, and future generations will live in the midst of clean, aseptic and beautiful surroundings, and will control the pesky little microbe with ease and alacrity.

Bacteria, then, sustain vital relations to the higher forms of life. They not only make it possible for the higher forms of life to exist, but the nutriment for their growth and development is furnished directly or indirectly by saprophytic bacteria; and when life becomes extinct, the corporeal remains are manufactured by them into nourishment for other forms of life to exist upon; and thus the cycle of life is perpetually performing its revolutions.

NOTES FROM BERLIN.

BY DR. A. B. GRAHAM, OF INDIANAPOLIS. The report now prevailing in the United States, that Prussia and the other German States having universities have made such changes in the conditions for admitting foreign students as practically to exclude them, is an exaggerated one and without any foundation whatever. The American student will experience no difficulty in obtaining work at the German medical centers. In order that he may secure work under certain physicians, it is necessary that he matriculate in the university. However, before he can matriculate he must present some proof of his being a physician. If he is fortunate enough to have his diploma with him, that will be sufficient; if not, his bank book, or, in short, anything that will show that he is a physician will be accepted as sufficient proof. Many of the American students do not matriculate, their work being under men not connected with the university. For example, one can attend the private clinics conducted by Dr. Boas without matriculating, but if he wishes to attend Prof. Ewald's clinics he must matriculate. Both courses are private and not easy to obtain. Prof. Ewald is connected with the university, while Dr. Boas is not.

THE ROENTGEN RAYS.

Many diseases of the internal organs are now being diagnosed by the use of the Roentgen photography. The apparatus is comparatively easy to procure and the "technique" is not difficult. Already the method is being tried by many physicians, so that further progress is certainly to be expected. A thirtyinch spark is used for the work.

The

Heart. One can see the size of the heart, and also as to whether it is in position. diagnosis of enlargement and pericarditis can now be made. The contractions of the heart can be perceived and an opinion formed as to the force and rythm of its activity.

The Concretion of Arteries. In an anatomical preparation it has been successful with the greatest exactness. The forms which are in life apparent are, however, not so distinct. It is of practical importance that the enlargement of arteries can be identified, whereby or through which the diagnosis of aortic aneurism much earlier than heretofore becomes possible. Dr. Klemperer says he has succeeded in seeing aortic aneurism when as yet no local symptom presented. Through the

conspicuous pulse becomes possible the differential diagnosis against existing mediastinal tumor.

Lungs. These are seen only as a feeble shadow. Pleuritic exudates, callous formations and great infiltration have been easily perceived in the darker shadow.

The esophagus and stomach can quite accurately be seen by the passing of a metal sound, or of a sound filled with shot. As yet not much progress in this line has been made. As yet the proof of the presence of kidney stones, stone in the bladder and gall-stones is still uncertain.

Dr. Wichaelis says that he does not believe that gonorrhoea is ever cured. He further states that the majority of abscesses found in the neighborhood of the genital organs, and formerly supposed to be tubercular in nature, are now proven to be of gonorrhoeal origin.

The St. Elizabeth (Lafayette) Hospital Reports.

Lafayette, Ind., November 10, 1897. Dear Doctor Brayton-The November number of the Indiana Medical Journal was received and reviewed. We desire to express our appreciation of the favorable notice you gave us in your review columns. You seem

to regard me as the "real thing" on the editorial staff. The others have just as much interest in its publication and welfare as do I. We are aiming to simply publish a modest little journal, and do not expect to accomplish anything startling. Thanking you for this notice of us, I remain,

Very fraternally, GEORGE F. KEIPER, M. D., Editorial Secretary.

Indianapolis, November 20, 1897. Dear Doctor Brayton-The concluding sentence in the article, "Richet on Pasteur," expresses just the contrary of that I tried to prove. I intended to say the pupils of Johannes Mueller were different from the followers of Darwin and Pasteur in so far as they were opposed to vitalism and also indifferent to evolution and bacteriology. This, I assert, is the natural result of their mechanical conception of life. But now-and this is the salient point-both Darwinism and bacteriology have exposed the weakness of such a conception in all vital phenomena. Under the influence of these new doctrines vitality is going to be reinitiated into biology in a modern and strictly scientific form.

I An

Please drop the "not" before "different." do not believe it was in the manuscript. other meaningless sentence may be omitted. Most respectfully,

GUIDO BELL.

The Medical Editor.

There are types of journals and, by that token, there are types of journalists. There are the newspaperish journalists, who run to gossip; there are the personal journalists, who not only deal in personalities, but write their editorials in the first person; there are iconoclastic journalists, who, in the absence of either wit or wisdom, change the color of paper, the width of column, the size of page, the character of cover, and very generally violate all the canons of the craft for no other reason than that of notoriety, and very cheap notoriety at that. There are slangy, vulgar, careless journalists, while occasionally one discovers a real journalist, one who is educated, writes good English, is careful with his proofs, has judgment in the selection of original matter, and who has high ideas, coupled with courage in his editorial policy.

Without question, the personal efforts and activity of an editor are responsible for the successful publication of a medical journal. True, the publisher may add his quota to the attractiveness and arrangement of the magazine, and the typographer's art may embellish its pages to the utmost limits, yet the one element on which the standard and reputation of the journal depends is the editor's power of discrimination, and the manner, method and meaning in the direction of his pen.

The readers of a medical journal do not expect to find an imprint of the editor's personality on every page. An editor who displays his literary attainments too profusely and allows his personal contributions to appear in his columns too frequently endangers the popularity of his journal. Good management in the selection of contributors and material bespeaks for a journal an increase in its subscription lists.

Whatever the conditions imposed may be, an editor should have exclusive control of the literary department of his journal. It should be his privilege to exclude all matter pertaining to the advertisement of any article of commerce from the literary columns, and he should also enter a protest, if he desires to conduct a genteel and thoroughly acceptable journal, to the insertion of advertising pages or matter in the body of the journal.-American Medical Journalist for October, 1897.

Kansas City, Mo., August 16th.-In a signed article in the Star, this evening, Dr. William Smith, a professor in the Kirkville (Mo.) School of Osteopathy, exposes "The National School of Osteopathy," so called, of this city, which, he declares, sold him a diploma for $150 within a week, although he had not taken a day's study in the institution. The supposed school has been in existence for some time, and has as its faculty E. D. Barber, W. A. Cormack and Bertha M. Barber. The officers of the Kirkville school, whose founder is Dr. A. T. Sill, the discoverer of the science, have decided to bring criminal proceedings against the concern.

Proceedings of Societies.

Vigo County Medical Society.

Terre Haute, Ind., October 7, 1897. Regular monthly meeting of the Vigo County Medical Society, President Dr. John E. Link in the chair. Those present were Drs. Link, Cooper, Larkins, Washburne of Clinton, Mason, McAllister, McClain, Combs, Weideman, Schell, Pote, D. V. S., and Luckett. The following resolution was adopted:

Resolved, That the thanks of this society are hereby extended to the editor of the Indiana Medical Journal for past favors, especially in so promptly and courteously publishing the reports, etc., of the meetings, and for any future considerations that may be shown.

At the August meeting Drs. Combs, Willis and Schell were appointed as a committee to assist the county attorney in enforcing the new medical law. As a result of the law, several of the Knights of Fraud have been driven from the county, and the prospects are that more will follow. Up to date there have been seventy-seven physicians registered. There are one hundred and five practicing in the county.

The paper of the evening was read by Dr. Pote, "Some Dangers of Milk." Milk being the natural food of the very young, the different peoples of the world have at various times substituted that of many of the lower animals as food for the child when from any cause the secretion of this fluid by the mother failed. The use of milk in various ways as food for the adult is shown by the statement that there are now in the United States alone more than five million cows, furnishing more than one billion gallons of milk annually for human consumption. In reference to the secretion of milk and its composition, many of the ancient philosophers, among them Avicenna, thought it was an altered menstrual blood, reasoning from the difficulty with which many females conceive while nursing. The declaration of Avicenna that the milk of pregnancy was divided into three parts, viz., part going to nourish the fetus, part ascending to the breasts, and a part was an excrementitious product, and his teaching of its composition, viz., that it was composed of butter and casein, which they precipitated with vinegar, and whey, from which the butter and curd had separated, was all that was

known of its constituent parts up to the early part of the sixteenth century.

In the early part of the seventeenth century the teaching of the philosophers was that all things were composed of three parts-sulphur, mercury and a saline principle. In milk the butter represented the sulphur, on account of its color; the whey the mercury, on account of its mobility, and the curd the saline element. This is of value only as a curious part of history. Advancement in physiology and chemistry has been the means of bringing to light its true origin and composition and value as an article of diet.

Milk is a perfect food, containing all the elements for the growth and healthy nutrition of the body. The science of bacteriology has also demonstrated that it is perfectly adapted to the existence and development of the bacterial forms of life as well as it is for food for higher organisms. Milk in the udder of the cow is a perfectly sterile fluid, providing the animal producing it is healthy. It soon becomes contaminated by standing exposed to the atmosphere at normal temperature. Commercial milk usually contains from 10,000 to 100,000 bacteria to the cubic centimetre, but nearly or quite all are harmless. Some are said to improve its flavor. On the other hand, it may contain some dangerous to health and life when taken into the human economy. With these latter pure milk must, therefore, become contaminated somewhere on its way from the udder of the cow to the consumer. We have come to look upon the dairies as the place where this usually occurs. Imperfect washing of vessels, or using polluted water with which to wash the cans or dilute the milk, or by letting the milk stand exposed to a contaminated atmosphere while cooling, are the most frequent sources of infection. The ptomains of these bacteria often render milk actually poisonous in a very short time.

Germs of disease coming from the diseased condition of cattle supplying milk marks one of the greatest dangers to the consumer, for the reason that the fluid generally reaches the stomach as a raw food. Of these the bacilli of tuberculosis may be noted as being the most prevalent. Dairy cattle are especially liable to this disease, owing principally to the conditions under which they are kept. The exact percentage of diseased cattle is hard to estimate, owing to the difficulty in collecting data upon the subject, but where a sys

tematic inspection of dairy cattle is made it is found to be alarmingly high. In this county the estimate is 5 per cent., but many individual herds show from 40 to 90 per cent. affected. A few years ago a herd supplying milk sold in this city showed 57 per cent. affected with tuberculosis in an advanced stage.

In addition to tuberculosis, milk may convey and spread the germs of diphtheria, typhoid and scarlet fever, and other contagious and infectious diseases. Two or three years ago, during an epidemic of diphtheria, twenty-seven cases, with seven deaths, were traced to one dairy. It was found that some of the family had suffered from sore throat, and the young man driving the milk wagon had a well-marked attack of diphtheria, but made his rounds each day. The place was permanently closed.

Discussion.

Dr. M. R. Combs: Next to the air we. breathe and the water we drink, there is nothing, perhaps, that is of more importance than the milk we consume. It always embraces a large part of our food supply, and during the first years of our lives our growth and development depend entirely on its proper digestion and assimilation. It is meet, therefore, that we should ever bear in mind the dangers that may lurk in this universal food product. The well-known difference between breast-fed and bottle-fed children is not due entirely to the difference in chemical constitution of human and cows' milk, but is very largely influenced by the comparative purity, or sterility, if you like, of the cows' milk. As proof of this, we have but to notice the results obtained in the Pasteurizing of milk for bottle-fed babies. Where proper precautions are used in obtaining pure milk, the milk Pasteurized before being fed to the child, the death rate from intestinal troubles in bottle-fed children approximates very closely to that of children who are nursed. We find this to be true even where the hygienic and climatic conditions are unfavorable. In adult life the dangers of milk by reason of lesser consumption and greater resisting power of the consumer, are not so striking, and yet we must not fail to remember that tubercular affections of the bowel in the adult are not unknown, and that typhoid infection from water with which our milk is so frequently adulterated is an entire possibility. It is a matter for congratulation that such intelligent effort is being put forth to place our city dairies under scientific hygienic surroundings, and that these efforts have been so notably successful.

Dr. W. Schell: This paper is on a topic of vast interest. Milk is the food of a large proportion of people. It is almost the exclusive

food of infancy and childhood. Its danger ought to be thoroughly understood by the physician, health official, public, and the producer of milk and its products. In large communities the customer cannot know anything of the product furnished him. He cannot see the animal; he cannot know the kind of food on which she is fed, the methods of milking and the care of the product. If he could see the filthy condition of some dairies he would no longer wonder that babies become sick. That milk can be a carrier of poison of deadly diseases is perfectly well understood, and was illustrated two years ago in our own city, where the driver of a milk wagon contracted a mild diphtheria, and about thirty children of his customers contracted the disease, and eight or nine died. Milk is a good culture fluid for the bacillus diphtheria, and the poison multiplies rapidly in it, so that it is most deadly in its action. Jackson and Frothingham, in Massachusetts. demonstrated tubercle bacilli in the milk of twleve out of thirty-six cows. Milk inoculated into guinea-pigs proved that it was capable of communicating the disease-nay, it was not even necessary to inoculate, since feeding infected 50 per cent. of the pigs and one-third of the calves. There was in these cases no disease of the udders as far as could be demonstrated. Veterinarians and practical farmers understand the danger, and calves are taken from tuberculous cows, although they are sometimes preserved for breeding purposes. The milk should be condemned. It is strange to say that veterinarians have been in advance of physicians in recognizing this danger. The vast numbers of bacteria in milk a few hours old and sent into cities without unusual care, may be understood when a conservative estimate of the number in a single glass is known to be something like 100,000,000. When epidemics of typhoid fever, scarlet fever and diphtheria can be traced to the milk supply of cities, it is time for municipal surveillance. This, I am happy to say, we have undertaken in Terre Haute, and Dr. Pote has done good work with our dairies. We now rank about first, I understand, in the quality of milk furnished, having a larger herd of Jerseys than any other city in proportion to population. We also have a model dairy farm for an object-lesson to farmers. The public will also use it to judge of other dairies. We only need to support our excellent veterinarian and efficient Board of Health to enable them to still further raise the standard and throw new safeguards about our food supplies. Since Dr. Pote is not a physician, and no improper motive can be attributed to him, I think his paper should be given to the daily papers for the instruction of the public.

Dr. McAllister: For the past two years all our dairies have been delivering milk in bottles, and, unfortunately, few of them are prepared to properly sterilize their bottles. Unless a bottle is subjected first to steam and