profession, and led them into the field at the head of their vassals."*

Not only public insults, and such crimes as civilized nations regard as capital, but disputes relating to property, were made the grounds of these private wars, and decided by the sword.

After the custom was established among the men of eminence, it was claimed and supported as a natural right. Laws were made determining the extent to which the relatives of the parties should be regarded as concerned in the wars. At one period all were included who fell within the seventh degree of affinity. Thus a multitude of innocent relations, as well as vassals and tenants, were exposed to destruction by the animosity of two ungodly gentlemen; and these "private wars were carried on with all the destructive rage which is to be dreaded from violent resentment when armed with force and sanctioned by law."†

The havoc made by this warfare, became at length so great, that kings and clergymen raised their voices to put an end to the custom. Various expedients were adopted, which had but a temporary effect. The edicts of kings against the custom, were regarded by the barons as infringements of their natural rights. Several councils of the clergy issued decrees to put an end to the carnage. One council decreed, that any one who should thus transgress, should be denied christian privileges while he lived, and christian burial after his death. This however was insufficient.

In A.D. 1032, a bishop of Aquitaine said, "that an angel had appeared to him, and brought a writing from heaven, enjoining men to cease from their hostilities." This proclamation happened to be made "in a time of public calamity, and the effect was so great, that a general peace ensued for seven years. This was called the truce of God." But the custom was afterwards revived, and became so intoler ́able, that the nobles were induced to enter "into voluntary associations, binding themselves to refer all matters of dispute, whether concerning civil property or points of honor, to the determination of the majority of the associates."

This bloody custom was continued in Europe, from the seventh to the eleventh century. It was adopted in Britain, the land of our forefathers, and was continued till the time of William the Norman. By this custom the ferocity of the Goths and Vandals became associated with the papal church, and naturally augmented the evils introduced by the reign of Constantine.

It may be proper to remark, that these private wars were not a substitute for public or national hostilities. When a nation was invaded, the private wars were laid aside, and these petty tyrants combined against the common fue.

It may now be asked, what profit may we derive from this portion of history? And from a custom which was long since abolished ?

1. We may learn something + Ibid. p. 218.

of the detestable character of the custom of public war, which is now popular among christian nations. Those private wars were public wars in miniature. The harons had as good a right to declare private war, and to expose all their dependants and connexions to death or misery as the rulers of nations have thus to expose whole communities of a larger size. What rational argument can now be brought in support of public wars, or the conduct of rulers in waging them, which might not have been urged in former ages in favor of private wars and the conduct of the barons? Do any now plead that the custom of public war is necessary and a natural right? Thus the barons vindicated their custom, and with equal reason. And had it been a popular custom for several centuries, for mechanics and farmers to decide their petty disputes by bloody combats, with axes, the custom might now have been supported as necessary, just, and honorable, with the same propriety that the barons vindicated their conduct, or that the rulers of nations may be vindicated, in waging public

fending subjects, the custom of war would long ago have been abolished.

2. We may see a possibility that a sanguinary custom of long standing may lose its popularity, and become an object of general abhorrence to posterity. Where is the christian or the civilized man, who can read the history of private wars without being shocked at the delusion and madness, which gave popularity to such a savage custom, among men professing the christian religion! We are amazed that they could think such a monstrous custom consistent with the spirit of the gospel or the dictates of reason and common sense. In the same manner, it is believed, future generations will be affected in reading the history of the public. wars of our age.

3. The history of private wars not only shows the possibility that public wars may cease; but it affords ground to hope that such will be the case; and suggests the way in which the event may be brought about. The remonstrances made by the united voice of the clergy against private wars could not fail to have considerable influence in leading men to reflect on the abominable injustice of the custom. If the declaration of one revered bishop, that he had received a writing from heaven, requiring a cessation of hostilities, could have so powerful an effect as to produce a peace for seven years; something surely may be done by the united endeavors on the part of the clergy of our age, in showing the palpable opposition there is between the war spirit and the

pute for these unhappy times. Every year, nay, every moon, we make new creeds to describe invisible mysteries. We repent of what we have done, we defend those who repent, we anathematize those whom we defended. We condemn either the doctrine of others in ourselves, or our own in that of others; and reciprocally tearing one another to pieces, we have been the cause of each other's ruin."

"But now, O lamentable! they are the suffrages of the earth that recommend the religion of

God, and Christ is found naked of his virtue, while ambition must give credit to his name. The church reproves and fights by banishments and prisons, and forceth herself to be believed, which once was believed, because of the imprisonments and banishments she herself suffered. She that once was consecrated by the terrors of her persecutors, depends now on the dignity of those that are in her communion. She that once was propagated by her banished priests, now ban. isheth the priests."

It is really surprising how dexterously and cunningly the artifices of fable will fold up the poison of a work in the complications of a narrative. It is commonly supposed by those who look no farther than the surface, that where no opinions are openly maintained hostile to the common principles of christianity, that all is well, and that if the ,reader's contempt and hatred are directed against acknowledged superstition only, that no harm is done by any fictitious representations. But how often does it happen, that the only symptoms of piety and the only instances of devotion which are permitted to deform the characters of a novel, are introduced only to heighten the ridicule and contempt to which some weak wight is destined, while the favorite actors in the story are as free from all appearance of piety, as if no God existed. Besides it is a common opinion, that in

any work the interests of morality are sufficiently secured, if vice be made to lead at last to misery, and virtue at last to happiness. But after having been. tempted to palliate the faults of a character for the sake of his rare and dazzling qualities, and to wish a thousand times in the course of the tale, that the institutions of society and the laws of God would relax in his favor a little of their rigor; how absurd is it after all the passions have been engaged on the side of the indiscreet hero, to suppose that the cause of virtue is secured, because poetical justice is administered at last.

Further, it is commonly said, that characters should be drawn as they appear in life, with the customary mixture of virtues and vices. If then any readers are more inclined to pity the unfortunate criminal, than to detest his crime and avoid the example, this, it is said, is nothing more

than what is daily found in real life. But why is it necessary that a character should be portrayed merely because it is natural? There are some characters which should never be contemplated, and, more which should never be described. If fictitious writing is always to be an exact representation of what passes in the world, we know not why it would be less dangerous to rush at once into the world and learn its wick

edness in person. In the first case the principles may be perverted, while the manners are pure; in the other, the manners may be stained, while the principles are uncorrupt. Because the world contains men, whose crimes seem to be lost in the blaze of their virtues, and whose passions are thought sublime only because they are unconquerable, we know not why these should be made the common heroes of fictitious history, and the reader made to lose his abhorrence of their faults by observing that great virtues and great vices are represented as inseparable.

It is indeed to be lamented, that at a time when the means of intellectual improvement are so widely extended, and a taste for reading is becoming universal, the first productions offered to young minds should be fictions, which can hardly add to the head a truth unqualified with error, or to the heart a sentiment without exposing it to be misled. For of all the wanderings of the imagination, none are more dangerous, than those which are generated by the perusal of books in the closet; because to the ignorant and unfortified, a book is an instructor, to which they implicitly

resign their faith, supposing that is to be believed, which has gained the sanction of the press.

"I hate vain thoughts," says David, "but thy law do I love." These two clauses seem to be placed in opposition to each other, as if a love of God's law would correct or prevent the vain and mischievous employment of the thoughts. There is indeed

much truth and propriety in the antithesis; for there is nothing which will more effectually cure the disorders of the imagination, than an habitual spirit of rational piety; and nothing which will more certainly rectify the errors of the judgment, and reinstate the fundamental truths of morality, than frequent and faithful appeals to the word of God. Here the airy castle builder, who loves to revolve schemes of future conduct, and rove through fancied Elysiums of his own planting, may learn, that even if all his schemes of bliss should be executed on earth, he would still be unhappy; because there is nothing in this world permanent or worthy to be compared with the glory that is to be revealed. Here the melancholy and tender spirit, which loves to dwell in solitude on the joys and sorrows through which it has passed, may find its energies awakened and the twilight of its thoughts illumined by the cheering prospects of bliss and bright eminences of future improvement, which the gospel of Jesus Christ holds out to his disciples. Here to the mind whose moral discernment has been obscured by the dazzling and deceitful light which fictitious histories present, may bring the characters of its favorite he