Paris, asserts himself to be the grandson of the Dauphin, son of Louis XVI. and Queen Marie Antoinette thus discrediting both the historical account of the murder of the Dauphin and the claims of the present Orleanist pretender. The latter is Prince Louis Philippe Robert, Duc d'Orleans, son of the late Comte de Paris. He was born in England, February 6, 1869, and married, November 5, 1896, the Archduchess Mary Dorothea of Austria. He is enormously rich. Prince Napoleon Victor Jerome Frederic, commonly called Frince Victor Bonaparte, receives equal recognition with the Duke of Orleans at European courts as are accorded to royal personages in retirement. Prince Victor was born in Paris, July 18, 1862, makes his home in Brussels, where he is given rank immediately after Prince Albert, the Belgian heir apparent. He is married, but his wife, to whom he is devoted, is a young Belgian of humble origin. They have two children. In natural sequence the disputed legitimacy of the regnant family in Spain comes next in order. Young Alfonso XIII. must make himself extremely popular in order to preserve his throne from being overturned by the republican element among his subjects, or turned over to Don Carlos. This prince, whose full name is Carlos Marie de los Dolores Jean Isidore Joseph Francois Quirin Antoine Michel Gabriel Raphael, and whose title is Duke of Madrid, was born March 30, 1848. He is wealthy and is treated as a royal personage in Venice, where he resides. He has always been active in assertion of his claim; and in his son, Don Jaime, there is a future pretender who is likely to be even more assertive. Don Jaime is the son of the pretender's first wife, who was a Bourbon princess. The present Duchess of Madrid is not of royal blood. Don Jaime, born at Vevay, Switzerland, June 27, 1870, is an officer in the Russian army.

The Portuguese throne is occupied by Dom Carlos I., but the legitimacy of his reign is questioned by Dom Miguel, Duke of Braganza, head of the royal line, displaced by the marriage of Queen Maria II. and Ferdinand, Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in 1836, the latter becoming king_under the title Ferdinand II. Dom Miguel was born September 19, 1853, married twice, and has one son, Francis Joseph, born September 7, 1879, the issue of his first wife.

For the Italian crown, now worn by Victor Emmanuel III., there is a claimant in the person of the Duke of Parma, but the pretence is deemed of so little moment by the reigning house that not only is the Duke permitted to reside in Italy, but the late King Humbert was in the habit of extending financial aid to needy members of the rival royal line. There is also a pretender to the throne of Naples, a kingdom absorbed by Italy in the new era of her existence inaugurated by Garibaldi; but the so-called Count of Caserta is unlikely to make any trouble for the reigning house, although it is possible that his family of twenty-two children might eventually produce an active claimant. The ex-Grand Duke of Tuscany is another who regards the Italian crown as a lost heritage which may be eventually restored to him or one of his posterity.

In completion of the list of pretenders, the Duke of Cumberland, great-granduncle of the German Kaiser, is claimant to the crown of one of the kingdoms included in the German Empire. His claim is for the right to reign as sovereign of Brunswick. The Duke is a principal personage at the Austrian Court, having precedence of all the archdukes. His wealth is vast, and he makes a lavish display of it on state occasions and when visiting England and other countries.

Psychology: Tts Mission and Development.

Psychology is the science which deals with states of mind or consciousness, but without concerning itself with the nature of mind it limits its subject matter to the way in which the mind works, or, more exactly, to mental processes. In other words, the task of psychology is the accurate description of mental operations and the formulation of the laws under which such operations take place. In the pursuit of this end the science has branched out in many directions and as a consequence has developed different methods of research which stand out prominently in its history. The earliest, and for centuries practically the only, method of psychological inquiry was what is known as the introspective, that is, where the psychologist observes and describes his own states of mind as

LIVINGSTON FARRAND,

A. M., M. D.,

of Columbia University.

accurately as possible, the inference being that what is true for one will be true for others. Toward the middle of the nineteenth century, however, the attempt was made to apply the methods of the physical laboratory, with their greater accuracy, to mental phenomena. Limited at first to experiments on simple sensations and the stimuli which caused them, the method was soon extended to higher mental functions such as perception, attention, memory, etc., and much light was thrown on operations which had theretofore baffled inquiry. The new method spread rapidly and has given rise to the modern experimental psychology

which, with its well equipped laboratories, holds sway in our colleges and universities to-day. As an offshoot of experimental psychology came the attempt to discover by the new method the connection between the mind and the body, more particularly the brain. That some connection did exist had long been admitted, but little was known as to its nature. This attempt involved as its main feature the study of the physiology of the brain and nervous system in their relations to mental processes and in developing this field has produced the physiological psychology of the day.

In the meantime, with the spread of the Darwinian doctrines of evolution and development, the attention of a large school of psychologists had been turned to the study of the differences between the minds of groups and races and species in an attempt to show how the minds of civilized men have developed from those of more primitive levels and of lower orders.

In this line much progress has been made by comparing the results of observations on the mental life of savages and of lower animals and the term comparative psychology is commonly used to describe this field. As a phase of this comparative psychology the investigation of children's minds as distinguished from those of adults has been actively pursued, and in the application of its results to methods of education is attracting widespread attention. One of the best ways of clearly understanding the normal, healthy mind is to observe it under extreme conditions, say those of disease, and recognizing this truth much admirable work has been done in the field of abnormal or pathological psychology, which embraces the phenomena of insanity, idiocy, hypnotism and similar states. In this connection, too, might be mentioned the researches in socalled mind reading, thought transference, spiritism and the like, which have caused much discussion and interest, but have as yet led to no certain results. In this particular field the position of the best authorities with regard to the alleged phenomena is one of scepticism or of reserved judgment.

As is evident from what has been said the science of psychology has developed a number of aspects all included under the general head, but each one practically forming a science by itself with specialists devoted to its investigation and with methods of research peculiar to its field.

Viewing the science as a whole, the most striking feature of the present day is the increasing emphasis of the comparative and developmental aspect mentioned above, which brings psychology into line with the other biological sciences of the times.

Thermaesthesiometer.

Psychological
Laboratory

Work: The Study of Man.

During the first session of the Fifty-seventh Congress several bills were introduced by Senators Hoar, Nelson, Bacon, McComas, Quay, Penrose, Money and Pettigrew, and by Representatives Ray, of New York, and Henry, of Connecticut, to authorize the establishment of a laboratory for the study of the criminal, pauper and defective classes. The bills were referred to the Committee on Judiciary, and several hearings were held, at which was present Arthur MacDonald, to whom the fact of the bills being presented was largely due. He presented to the committee a plan for the study of man which was ordered printed. The question of the establishment of a laboratory has not yet come before Congress for decision.

Professor MacDonald is a specialist in the United States Bureau of Education, a member of the Societe d'Hypnologie et Psychologie de Paris, and author of "Abnormal Man,' "Le Criminel-Type," and "Experimental Study of Children." He has probably made a more complete study of the abnormal classes than any other man in the United States, finding his data in jails and workhouses, reformatories and industrial schools, and in the homes of murderers and thieves. The general purpose of the bills presented to Congress through his suggestion is a sociological and scientific study of the abnormal classes, as a development of work already begun under the Federal Government. The term "laboratory" is employed in the broadest sense, not only including the use of instruments, but the gathering of sociological data, the investigation of anarchistic criminals, mob influence and like phenomena, in order especially that the causes of social evils may be sought out with a view to lessening them. It is purposed to combine and summarize the data gathered by the State institutions, making the work of these latter more useful to the country at large. The most rigid and best method of study of both children and adults is. according to Professor MacDonald, that of the laboratory with instruments of precision, in connection with sociological data. Such inquiry consists in gathering sociological, pathological and abnormal data as found in children, in criminal, pauper and defective classes, and in hospitals. It is necessary to first study the individual in order that the class may be known, and this is what is proposed, if such a laboratory be established.

As to the utility of such a work on the part of the Government, Professor MacDonald pointed out that while considerable money is spent for the arrest and conviction of criminals, no recognition is generally given to the causes which make criminals, nor to the fact that conditions and training, as well as birth, may make moral imbeciles. Until an offense has been committed the law does not recognize the offender. Professor MacDonald's plan presented to the Congressional committee gives a complete exposition of the methods to be employed in obtaining data from which to make work, together with the results of a number of questionaires he conducted himself.

Professor MacDonald occupied the attention of the committee for some time in explaining work which he and his colleagues had done in connection with Washington children, whose parents came from all parts of the United States and who might safely be taken as generally representative of American environments and conditions. Some 20,000 children were investigated as to their mental ability in relation to sex, nationality, sociological conditions, abnormalities and defects, and the results obtained showed some of the advantages of such study. In the entire list, without regard to social position of the children, all the boys

and all the girls showed the same per cent of brightness, but the girls showed five per cent less dulness. Children of American parentage appeared to be brighter than children of foreign parentage or foreign and American parentage. Children of non-laboring classes, including the professional and mercantile, showed a larger per cent of brightness than children of the laboring classes, indicating that the advantages of good social conditions are favorable to mental activity.

Boys of non-laboring classes showed a much higher per cent of sickliness and nervousness than boys of the laboring classes. The opposite was true in the case of girls of both classes. The percentage of lazi ness was much higher among boys of both classes than among girls, as was also the percentage of unruliness. In general the boys showed a much higher percentage of defects than the girls, though the defects in the girls were more serious and more significant than in the boys. As a parallel, Professor MacDonald showed that in prisons and reformatories there are four or five males to every one female. It was generally concluded that children with abnormalities are inferior not only in mental ability, but in weight, height and the circumference of the head.

Sensibility to heat, pain, location, strength of hand grasp, and the various anthropometric measurements, are the principal tests for which instruments of precision are used in the work Professor MacDonald carries on. For testing sensibility to heat two thermometers are used, one of which can be heated elec

trically, about 20 deg. These two thermometers are placed against the skin of the subject and are read at the instant when the subject fails to appreciate a difference of temperature between the two. This instrument is called the thermaesthesiometer.

For testing sensibility to location an instrument consisting of two points, one of which may be moved along a scale, is used. The points are separated and placed against the skin of the subject and the distance at which the subject is unable to tell whether he feels one or two points, is read on the scale. For measuring susceptibility to pain, two instruments are employed. One measures the amount of pressure at the time electrical sensibility to tingling or pain is felt. The other consists of a steel bar sliding in a brass cylinder and engaging a spring to which is attached a marker moving against a scale. The end of the rod is placed against the temple of the subject and pressure is applied gradually until the subject feels it to be disagreeable. In making experiments upon both sexes it was found that women were more susceptible to pain than men.

By means of these instruments the difference in sensibility between normal and abnormal types can be determined. For example, with the instrument for measuring pain, a maximum pressure of 4,000 grams can be given, which range was amply sufficient for normal classes, but in experiments on criminals the pressure of 4,000 grams was found to be not at all disagreeable.

A score or more members of Congress have expressed themselves as favoring the work, and many scientific journals have given editorial space to the advantages and needs of such work.

Railroads in the

United States.

The first railroad of which there is any record was built in 1672, at the collieries, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England. Wooden rails were used and four-wheeled carts were drawn upon them by horses. Iron rails were first used at Whithaven, England, in 1738. In 1814 George Stephenson built his first locomotive, which travelled at the rate of six miles an hour, and in 1829 he built the Rocket, which weighed 4 tons and 3 cwt., and which was good for 35 miles an hour.

The first railroad in America was projected by Gridley Bryant, a civil engineer, in 1825, and was built by him and Colonel T. H. Perkins in 1826. It was designed to carry granite from the quarries at Quincy, Mass., to tidewater. It is still in operation and is known as the Quincy Railroad. It is four miles long, including branches, and its first cost was $50,000. It was laid to a 5-foot gauge. It was supplied with the first time table ever used, which was designed by Mr. Bryant. He also constructed the first eightwheeled car ever used. The second American railroad was built in 1827, from the coal mines of Mauch Chunk, Pa., to the Lehigh River, and with its turnouts and branches, was 13 miles long. The first locomotive for railroad purposes, and the first used in the transportation of passengers on this side of the Atlantic, was built by Peter Cooper in 1830. It weighed only about a ton, but with it a speed of 18 miles an hour was attained. The successful use of locomotives, both in this country and in Europe, gave an extraordinary impetus to the construction of new lines of railroads upon the principal routes of intercommunication. From 1832 to 1837 so great was the enterprise throughout the United States in the projection and construction of railroads that at the end of that time the completed lines exceeded in number and length those of any other country. Since then, with occasional interruptions arising from financial crisis and the civil war, the multiplication of railroads has kept pace with the extraordinary increase of population and wealth, and now the mileage of railroads in this country is more than four times as great as in Great Britain, and far in excess of that of all the rest of the world.

Owing to the fact that our railroads have largely been constructed to meet local needs, and have been under no general supervision, no standard gauge has been adopted, although that of 4 feet 8 1-2 inches is the one mostly in use. Several thousand miles of narrow gauge road have been constructed, the width being generally 3 feet. The advocates of this gauge claim for it cheapness of construction and maintenance, and relatively greater capacity for traffic than the wide gauge roads.

The remarkable development of electric science in the past few years have caused electricity to be seriously considered as a substitute for steam in furnishing the motive power for railroads. The subject has been more thoroughly investigated in Germany than in any other country. There a speed of 120 miles an hour has been obtained, with satisfactory conditions as regards safety, cost, etc. An electrical expert of this country, Mr. Sydney H. Short, predicts that in fifteen years electricity will supersede steam as a motive power, that the trunk line railroads will be running trains at 125 miles an hour, and that trains will run from New York to Chicago in 10 hours. We have now trains running between these two points in 20 hours, developing a speed at times of 95 miles an hour, while a train is run between the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards in 88 hours.

In railroads, as in other lines of business, the tendency has been of late years to work a consolidation of interests, and a well posted railroad man maintains that in time, and that not far off, the entire system of the country will be controlled by three roads. This was John W. Gates, who said to an American representative: "In a very few years all the railroads will be comprised in three or four great systems. The Vanderbilts will own one, the biggest; Harriman will be at the head of another, and James Hill, the greatest of all railroaders, has his own railroad. Stocks will become so valuable, that they will be wiped out of the market." With the recent great mergers of railroad interests this prediction seems now in a fair way of realization.

The following statement. compiled for Poor's Manual of Railroads shows the equipment, financial operations and traffic operations of all the railroads of the United States for 1901, the latest year for which completed information is obtainable: Mileage of railroads, 195.887: second track, sidings, etc., 76,105; total, 265,992; locomotives. 39.729; passenger cars, 27,144; bags, mail, etc.. 8,667; freight, 1,409,472. Liabilities-Capital stock, $5,978,796,249; bonded debt, $6.035,469.741; unfunded debt, $312.225,536; current accounts, $456,798,012: sinking and other funds, $143.670.983; total, $12,926,960,521. Assets-Cost of railroad and equipment. $10,777,752,155; other investments, $1.976,548,412; sundry assets, $390.112,441; current accounts, $223,616,024; total, $13,308,029,632. Excess of assets, $381,068,511. Miles of railroad operated, 199,975; passengers carried, 600,485,790; tons of freight moved, 1,084,066,451. Total revenue, $588,663,541; total payments. $477.355.347; surplus, $111.308,194.

The preliminary report of the Interstate Commerce Commission on the income account of railways in the United States for the year ended June 20 last contains returns of railway companies operating 165,945 miles of line, or probably 98 per cent of the total railway mileage of the United States.

The passenger earnings of these railways were $472,429,165, and the freight earnings $1,200,884,603. Including these and other earnings from operation, gross earnings amounted to $1,711,754,200, or $8,736 per mile of line; and operating expenses, $1,106,137,405, or $5,645 per mile of line; showing that net earnings were $605,676,795, or $3,091 per mile. The net earnings were $51,395,421 greater than during the previous year.

Religious
Progress:
A Roman
Catholic View.

REV. A. P. DOYLE, of the Paulist Fathers.

The year 1902 in the Catholic Church has been one of quiet, yet of healthy and vigorous growth. There are no accurate statistics to tell just the size of this growth, but there are many signs of a strong heart action. of throbbing pulses. of increasing activity in various departments and of a vigorous, energetic progress throughout the entire system. The Catholic Church presents at the close of the present year an organization well equipped to do its work. There had been some frictions and contentious, but much of this has been eliminated and there has been during the past year a positive progress in harmonious and unified action among the leaders. Two of the Archbishops have diedMost Rev. P. A. Feehan, in Chicago, and Most Rev. M. A. Corrigan, in New York-leaving the two most important sees vacant. New York was quickly filled by the selection of Most Rev. J. M. Farley, while the see of Chicago is still unoccupied.

There were three new bishops appointed during the year: Rt. Rev. W. J. Kenny, to St. Augustine, Fla.; Rt. Rev. J. J. Keane, to Cheyenne. Wyo., and Rt. Rev. J. N. Stariha, to Lead, S. D.

The most important ecclesiastical event of the year was the sending of the Taft Commission to Rome to treat with the Vatican about the lands of the Friars in the Philippines. While the Commission did not secure all that it desired yet it was received at Rome by the Vatican authorities in a spirit of conciliation and helpfulness, and negotiations were entered into which will ultimately result in securing the advantages desired. Mgr. Guidi was appointed Apostolic Delegate to the Church in the Philippines. The importance of the Taft Commission may be estimated from the following considerations: First, it is the primary step on the part of the Government at Washington to treat directly with the Vatican; second, while the question at stake was largely a matter of business-the selling of the possessions of the Friars-yet the settlement re

1

sulted in the inauguration of certain diplomatic relations which cannot but ultimately redound to a better understanding and, therefore, more harmonious action between the authorities in both Church and State. Another matter of some importance was the adjudication by the International Tribunal of The Hague of the question of the Pious Fund between the Mexican government and Archbishop Riordan, representing the Church in California. This question has been pending for many years, and its solution resulted in favor of the claims of the Church in California, whereby the Mexican Government was condemned to pay to Archbishop Riordan an award of $1,420,682.00 in Mexican money, together with an annual interest of $43.051.

While these events have their importance, probably the most significant event of the year was the turning of the first sod of the Apostolic Mission House on the grounds of the Catholic University at Washington. The ceremony was performed by Cardinal Gibbons in the presence of the Archbishops and a large gathering of ecclesiastics on the afternoon of November 13. The significance of this ceremony is the official recognition given by the hierarchy to the new and vigorous and aggressive movement which has for its purpose the preaching of Catholic truth to the great throngs of the unchurched in this country. This movement was started by the Paulist Fathers a few years ago and it has grown with such rapidity that there are now more than fifty missionaries engaged exclusively in the work. It is the purpose of the movement to institute in every diocese a band of missionaries who will address themselves principally to the non-Catholies who are outside the churches and lay before them a plain statement of Catholic teaching. This will create a body of four or five hundred active missionaries whose special business will be to dissipate prejudices and present the claims of the Church in a most attractive way to the unchurched masses. The Apostolic Mission House at the Catholic University is designed to be the training school of the missionaries for this work. The immediate fruit of the movement has been a better understanding of Catholic teaching, a higher appreciation of the Catholic position and the reception of many thousand converts into the Catholic Church. Heretofore, the movement has been inspired by the enthusiasm of a few, but the ceremony of November 13 is the official recognition by the Church. The turning of the sod by the Cardinal in the presence of the Archbishops means the placing of the plant in the chosen nursery of the Church in order that it may there be fostered. Ultimately about the Apostolic Mission House will gather the missionary energies of the Church in the United States.

There have been many other events of minor importance, but all cumulatively taken indicate that the Church is faced to the rising sun. She now numbers by the claims of her leaders at least 14,000,000 adherents, though actual returns gave her but 11,000,000. It is claimed that these statistical returns are below the reality. There are no dissident or heretical movements within her to mar the compactness of her doctrinal professions and there is every indication of a healthy, vigorous growth.

Religious Progress: A Unitarian View

Progress in the religious world means, as viewed from the standpoint of Unitarians, so far as it is my privilege to speak in their name, a broadening of both views and sympathies, together with a larger interest taken by people In those things which tend toward moral and spiritual growth. We have been getting along in this direction for many years; and while the lines of demarcation between the various denominations are not obliterated, they stand no longer like solid walls that the spirit of fellowship may not penetrate, and across which the handclasp of good will must not be given. The spirit of controversy has been banished in a very large degree, and there is a growing number of essential things in religious thought and work upon which all the churches are agreed.

REV. ROBERT
COLLYER,

of the Church of the Messiah, New York City.

These constitute a broad platform, whereon there is absolute fellowship, and, in certain directions, they create a practical union of all denominations in a common cause. The strengthening of effort for denominational growth is not out of keeping with this idea. While each branch of the church universal holds its banner high and proclaims the Gospel strenuously in its own interpretation of it, it is no longer considered necessary in the work of saving souls to try to prove that the other churches cannot save them. Even the Unitarians have almost forgotten how it seems to be denounced as heretics by their Protestant brethren, who, in their turn, are regarded by the Roman Catholic Church with all the tolerance which its constitution permits. So we are gradually coming together in religious things, if not in the articles of religious belief. Creeds continue to hold us apart in a way, but even creeds are becoming modified, and perhaps the most noteworthy sign of religious progress during the year 1902 is embodied in the changes which the Presbyterion body has made in that direction. For years the Presbyterion Church had clung, as a church, to tenets of belief which many of its most devoted and influential members either rejected wholly, or accepted with such mental reservation as would once have constituted heresy, if openly expressed. Such, for instance, was the dogma concerning the hopeless condition of the souls of deceased infants. The elimination of this horrible theory from the professed belief of Presbyterians is a victory both for the cause of religion and for one of the tenderest sympathies of the human heart. Creeds. no matter how true they may be in the light of theology or of philosophy, contribute nothing to the development of religious life if they antagonize the best and sweetest and purest sentiments of human nature, and it is strange that this idea of infant damnation ever found its way into the doctrines of the Presbyterian Church, and remained there so long. In the face of that invitation which Jesus uttered-"Suffer the little children to come unto Me, and forbid them not. for of such is the kingdom of heaven." Naturally the elimination of this or any other item from the doctrinal system of any denomination lessens by just so much its differentiation from other denominations, and the promise of religious progress as seen in such things lies in the strengthening of the bonds of sympathy existing between the various churches as points of antagonism disappear. Then, as churches draw closer together in fellowship of the spirit, they may still retain their peculiarities of organization, and their specialties of ceremonial, and all those other things which few of their adherents would claim to be really essential, even though they are wedded to them in a way; they may still be Episcopalians or Methodists, Presbyterians or Baptists, Universalists or Unitarians, but they will find much work to do in common and will do it. And they will learn more and more to love all the other churches for what is good in them rather than to criticise and oppose them because of that which is not exactly in accord with their own conceptions in that particular direction.

There is a wonderful agreement upon the value of that church life which tends to advance Christianity along the practical lines of improved character in people and in the development of that universal brotherhood which means the betterment in every way of the conditions of living. The creed which proves its fidelity to the teachings of Jesus by making their effect evident in individual and social life is the one which will be most widely accepted as the world proceeds in its march of progress. It is scarcely possible that it will ever be set forth in one common form, but it is no mere optimism which leads many people to see, somewhere in the future, a period when all the truly uplifting creeds will be essentially one. The points wherein they differ will not afford ground upon which the adherents of any of them will stand in antagonism to other Christians; nor will they establish any ecclesiastical circle within which any body of believers will find room for the conceit that they alone are the true disciples of Him from whom Christendom derives its name. Of course there will always be churches which will possess the idea that somehow they have discovered something more of everlasting truth than is embodied in the doctrines of other churches; and these will always attract to their membership many people whose study of their formulated statements may establish conviction as to their reasonableness. But even such people will realize more and more that, even as the tree is judged by its fruit, any church will grow or die only as it may possess or lack the spirit of Christ's teachings and example.