France, Germany and of other countries having an administrative jurisdiction protects the administration from interference by the courts to an extent unknown to the Anglo-American law.1

tries, the following may be consulted. Only some of them have been actually used in the course of the present study:

France: Aucoc, L., Conférences sur l'administration et le droit administratif, 3rd ed., Paris, 1885-86, 2 v.; Béquet, Léon, Répertoire du droit administratif, Paris, 1882-1907, 24 vol., especially v. 23, title "Responsabilité" by Teissier; Berthélemy, J. B. H., Traité élémentaire de droit administratif, 5. éd., Paris, 1908; Block, Maurice, Dictionnaire de l'administration française, 5. éd., Paris, 1905; 2 vol. Same, Supplément, Paris, 1907; Boeuf, Henri, Résumé de droit administratif, 20. éd., Paris, 1907; Brémond, Jules, Traité théorique et pratique de la compétence administrative, Paris, 1894; Dareste de La Chavanne, Rodolphe, La justice administrative en France, . . . 2. éd., Paris, 1898; Ducrocq, Th., Cours de droit administratif, . . . 7. éd., Paris, 1897-1905, 7 vol.; Hauriou, Maurice, Précis de droit administratif et de droit public, 8th éd., Paris, 1914; Jacquelin, René L. D., Les principes dominants du contentieux administratif, . . . Paris, 1899; Jèze, Gaston, Eléments du droit public et administratif, Paris, 1910; Laferrière, E., Traité de la juridiction administrative et des recours contentieux, . . 2. éd., Paris, 1896, 2 vol.; Mailhol, Dayre de, Dictionnaire encyclopédique d'administration générale, Paris, 1906-8, 5 vol.; Marie, Jean, Eléments de droit administratif, . . . Paris, 1890; Mayer, Otto, Theorie des französischen Verwaltungsrechts, Strassburg, 1886; Moreau, Félix P. L., Manuel de droit administratif, . . . Paris, 1909.

...

...

Germany and Prussia: Altmann, Paul, Die Verfassung und Verwaltung im Deutschen Reiche und Preussen, . . . Berlin, 1907-08, 2 vol.; Bornhak, Konrad, Grundriss des Verwaltungsrechts in Preussen und dem Deutschen Reiche, 4th ed., Leipzig, 1912; Fleiner, F., Institutionen des deutschen Verwaltungsrechts, 3rd ed., Tübingen, 1913; Gneist, R., Der Rechtsstaat u Verwaltungsgerichte in Deutschland, 2. aufl., Berlin, 1879; Jahrbuch des Verwaltungsrechts, Berlin, 1907– 1914, vol. 1-8 (1905–1914), and continuation; Kunze, Fritz, Das Verwaltungsstreitverfahren, . . . Berlin, 1908; Loening, Edgar, Lehrbuch des deutschen Verwaltungsrechts, Leipzig, 1884; Mayer, Otto, Deutsches Verwaltungsrecht, Leipzig, 1895-6 (also in French, Paris, 1903-06), 2 vol., 2nd ed., 1914; Meyer, Georg, Lehrbuch des deutschen Verwaltungsrechtes, 3. aufl., Leipzig, 1910; Mohl, Robert 3. aufl.,

v., Die Polizei-wissenschaft nach den Grundsätzen des Rechtsstaates, Tübingen, 1866, 3 vol.; Sarwey, O., Allgemeines Verwaltungsrecht, Freiburg, 1884; Sarwey, O., Das öffentliche Recht u. die Verwaltungsrechtspflege, Tübingen, 1880; Stengel, Karl M. J. L., Lehrbuch des deutschen Verwaltungsrechts, Stuttgart, 1886; Stengel, Karl M. J. L., Wörterbuch des deutschen Verwaltungsrechts, .. 2. aufl., by Fleischmann, Tübingen, 1911-1914. 3 v.; Tezner, Friedrich, Die deutschen Theorien der Verwaltungsrechtspflege, . . . Berlin, 1901; Zorn, Philipp, Das Staatsrecht des Deutschen Reiches, 2. aufl., Berlin, 1895-97, 2 vols. (Vol. 1: Das Verfassungsrecht; Vol. 2: Das Verwaltungsrecht. .)

...

1Cf. article by Ernst Freund, Private claims against the state, 8 Pol. Sc. Quar. (1893), 625, 651.

§ 50. When State is Responsible, and Incidence of Liability.

It is now recognized in all civilized countries that the interference of the state in private rights for public purposes requires in some measure a compensation for the special sacrifice borne by the in

Bornhak, Konrad, Geschichte des preussischen Verwaltungsrechts, Berlin, 1884-86, 3 vol.; Handbuch für preussische Verwaltungsbeamte . . . begründet von Illing. fortgeführt von George Kautz, . . . 10 aufl., Berlin, 1913, 3 vol. and index; Handwörterbuch der preussischen Verwaltung, Hrsg. v. Bitter, 2 aufl., Leipzig, 1911, 2 vols.; Preussen, Oberverwaltungsgericht, Die Rechtsgrundsätze des Königlich Preussischen Oberverwaltungsgerichts, Begründet von K. Parey, 4 aufl., Hrsg. von Fr. Kunze . . . und Dr. G. Kautz, Berlin, J. Guttentag, 1905-06, 3 v. and supplement.

Austria-Hungary: Excel, Theodor, Das Verfahren vor dem K. K. Verwaltungsgerichtshofe . . . Wien, 1885-92, 2 vols.; Grünwald, Ludwig, Der österreichische Verwaltungs-gerichtshof, Mit Vergleichung des bestehenden Rechtes in England, Frankreich, Italien, Baden und Pruessen, Wien, 1875; Gumplowicz, Ludwig, Das oesterreichische Staatsrecht (Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsrecht) . . 2 aufl., Wien, 1902; Kissling, Karl von, Beiträge zur Theorie des Verwaltungsrechtes. Wien, 1876; Kissling, Karl von, Reichsgericht und Verwaltungsgerichtshof . . . Wien, 1875; Mayrhofer, Ernst, .. Handbuch für den politischen Verwaltungsdienst, 5. aufl. Wien, 1895-1901, 7 vol. Same, Index, Wien, 1903. Same, Supp., 1909-; Mischler, Ernst, Österreichisches Staatswörterbuch, . . . 2 aufl., Wien, 1905-9, 4 vols.; Normaliensammlung für den politischen Verwaltungsdienst .. Wien, 1901-1907, 4 vol. Same, 3 Supplements. Wien, 1911-12;' Tezner, Friedrich, Handbuch des österreichischen Administrativverfahrens, Wien, 1896; Ulbrich, Josef, Handbuch der österreichischen politischen Verwaltung, Wien, 1888-90, 2 vol. Same, Supplement. Wien, 1892; Ulbrich, Josef, Lehrbuch des österreichischen Verwaltungsrechtes, . . . Wien, 1904; Zolger, Ivan, Oesterreichisches Verordnungsrecht, verwaltungsrechtlich dargestellt, Innsbruck, 1898; Markus, Desider, Ungarisches Verwaltungsrecht, Tübingen, 1912. Italy: Boccardo, Gerolamo, Manuale di diritto amministrativo, 2. ed., Torino-Napoli, 1886; Brunialti, A., Il diritto amministrativo italiano e comparato nella scienza e nella istituzioni, Torino, 1912-, Vol. 1 and continuation; Brunialti, A., I diritti dei cittadini e la giustizia amministrativa in Italia, Torino, 1902; Enciclopedia di amministrazione, industria e commercio . . . Opera diretta dal Comm. Giuseppe Cerboni . . . Milano, F. Vallardi, 1891-1904, 5 vols.; Forti, Ugo, Studi e questioni di diritto amministrativo, . . . Torino, 1906; Orlando, V. E., Primo trattato completo di diritto amministrativo italiano, Milano, 1900-05, vols. 1, 3, 4, 42, 9 (in progress); Presutti, Enrico, . . Instituzioni di diritto amministrativo italiano, Napoli, 1904-05, 2 vol.; Raneletti, Diritto amministrativo, Naples, 1912-, Vol. 1 and cont.; Salandra, A., Lezioni di diritto amministrativo per cura di C. Manes, Rome, 1912; Vitta, Cino, . . . Giustizia amministrativa. Principi fondamentali, . . . Milano, 1903.

...

Spain: Abella, Fermín, Tratado de derecho administrativo español, . . . Madrid, 1886-88, 3 vol.; Aleu y Carrera, Manuel, Diccionario de la administración municipal

dividual in the public interest. The dividing line between sacrifices for which the individual shall be compensated and those which he must bear alone, the extent of his remedy for official misfeasance or nonfeasance, the proper party defendant, whether state or officer,

...

de España, . . . 2. ed., Madrid, 1908–11, 8 vol.; Caballero y Montes, José María, Lo contencioso-administrativo, . . . Zaragoza, 1902-04, 3 vol.; Colmerio, Manuel, Elementos del derecho político y administrativo de España, 7. ed., Madrid, 1887; González, Alfonso, La materia contencioso-administrativa, comentario á la legislación vigente, Madrid, 1903; Martínez Alcubilla, Marcelo, Diccionario de la administración española, . . 5. ed., . . . Madrid, . . . 1892-95, 9 vols. and Appendices; Posada, Adolfo, Tratado de derecho administrativo según las teorías, filosóficas y la legislación positiva, . . . Madrid, 1897-98, 2 vols.; Royo Villanova, Antonio, Elementos de derecho administrativo, . . Valladolid, 1907, 2 vol. in 1; Santamaría de Paredes, Vicente, Curso de derecho administrativo, 7. ed., Madrid, 1911; Ubierna y Eusa, J. A., Conflictos jurisdiccionales entre los poderes ejecutivo y judicial, Madrid, 1911.

Belgium: Bladel, Georges, Eléments de droit maritime administratif belge, Bruxelles, 1912; Bourquin, Maurice, La protection des droits individuels contre les abus de pouvoir de l'autorité administrative en Belgique, Bruxelles, 1912; Errera, Paul, Traité de droit public belge, Paris, 1909; Giron, A., Dictionnaire de droit administratif et de droit public, Bruxelles, 1895-96, 3 vol.; Giron, A., Le droit administratif de la Belgique, 2. éd., . . . Bruxelles, 1885, 3 vol.; Masson, F., and Wiliquet, C., Manuel de droit constitutionnel, notions élémentaires des institutions constitutionnelles et administratives de la Belgique, . . . 7. éd., Bruxelles, 1904; Orban, O., Manuel de droit administratif belge, Liège, Namur, 1897.

Portugal: Motta, Jayme Arthur da, Codigo administrativo de 1896 annotado, 2. edição, Coimbra, 1909; Pedrosa, Guimaraes, Curso de ciencia da administração e direito administrativo, 2. ediçao, Coimbra, Imp. Univ., 1909, 2 vol. SPANISH AMERICA:

Argentine: Estrada, José M., Curso de derecho constitucional, federal y administrativo, Buenos Aires, 1895; López, Lucio Vicente, Derecho administrativo argentino, . . . Buenos Aires, 1902.

Bolivia: Loayza, Hiram, Juicios de hacienda comprende juicio coactivo, . . La Paz, 1906; Moscoso, Octavio, Diccionario jurídico y administrativo de Bolivia, Sucre, 1908, 2 vol.; Santos Quinteros, José, Derecho administrativo, Sucre, 1893. Brazil: Viveiros de Castro, August O., Tratado de sciencia da administração e direito administrativo, 2. ed., Rio de Janeiro, 1912.

Chile: Amunategui Rivera, J. D., Administración politica i derecho administrativo, Santiago de Chile, 1907; Amunategui Rivera, José Domingo, Tratado general de derecho administrativo aplicado á la legislación de Chile, Santiago, 1907; Amunategui Rivera, J. D., Résumen de derecho administrativo aplicado a la legislación de Chile, Montevideo, 1900; Larrain Zanartu, J. J., El ciudadano y el gobierno, Santiago, 1886; Perez de Arce, Hermójenes. Tratado de administración pública, . . . Santiago,

Colombia: Olarte Camacho, Vicente, Recopilación de leyes y disposiciones ad

are matters which differ from country to country and which require detailed examination.

We have already adverted to the two aspects of the state as a property owner and fiscal entrepreneur and as a public power. The difficulty in applying the rule of responsibility, which is generally admitted in the former case and on principle denied in the latter, consists in determining when the state does act as a subject of property rights and when it acts in its sovereign sphere as a public power. For example, one transaction may involve its functions in both capacities; thus, it has been held in France that a request for diplomatic interposition made upon the Foreign Office, with papers in support, cannot in case of refusal involve the responsibility of the state, but that the loss of the papers filed does warrant an action for damages. The only way of settling the difficulty is by reference to the administrative jurisprudence of the various countries, from which we may determine the particular activities of the state which have been held to be within its functions as a fiskus, or to constitute acts of gestion, and therefore to involve the liability of the state.

When the state acts in its capacity as a public power, its responsibility has often been admitted by special legislation. For example, all states recognize the necessity of compensating the owner of private property taken for public use. How much further governments go in

ministrativas, Bogota, Colombia, 1901-2, 2 vol.; González, Florentino, Derecho administrativo (Bogota).

Costa Rica: Zambrana, Antonio, La administración. Un estudio, San José, 1897. Cuba: Morilla, José Maria, Breve tratado de derecho administrativo espagnol general del reino, y especial de la isla de Cuba, 2. ed., Habana, 1896, 2 vol. in 1. Guatemala: González Saravia, Antonio, La administración publica (Guatemala). Haiti: Price, Hannibal, Législation haitienne. Cours de droit administratif, 2. ed., Havre, 1910.

Paraguay: Ley de organización administrativa (Asunción), 1908.

Peru: Riós, Ricardo R., Legislación administrativa y manuel de funcionarios públicos, Lima, Moreno, 1907-, Vol. 1 and cont.

Salvador: Organización política y administración de el Salvador. Codificación de las leyes politicas y administrativas vigentes (El Salvador).

Uruguay: Varela, Luis Vicente, Código de procedimientos administrativos y de los contencioso administrativo, Montevideo, 1908; Varela, Luis, Apuntes de derecho administrativo, . . . Montevideo, 1897, 2 vol.; Varela, Luis Vicente, Estudios de derecho administrativo, . . . Montevideo, 1901-6, 2 vol.

compensating individuals for losses incidental to the operation of the state's public or police power differs greatly from country to country. To some extent the question will be discussed below. For the present it may merely be noted that the more important countries of Europe are greatly widening the sphere of state responsibility for the losses imposed upon individuals through the exercise of the public power and especially is this the case where, in countries like France, an administrative jurisdiction controls acts of administration. Many publicists therefore profess to note an abandonment of the timehonored distinction between acts of gestion and acts of public power as a criterion of state responsibility, and it is unquestionably true that recent decisions have greatly weakened the force of the distinction.1

Finally, in addition to the differences as to substantive responsibility, there is to be noted a wide variation in the remedies offered to individuals injured through official action. In some countries, as in France and Italy, recourse may be had to the administrative courts by way of annulment for acts in excess of jurisdiction or power, or misuse of authority by officers. This remedy does not lie in Belgium and some other states, like the Scandinavian countries, where there are no administrative courts and where judicial control is extremely limited. In the United States and Great Britain, the judicial control through the use of injunction and mandamus effects the same purpose.2 In some countries the government is made primarily responsible for the defective operation of the public administration, at least for acts not attributable to the personal malice or intentional wrong-doing of the officer. This is the system in force with various modifications in the countries of Western Europe. In France, the responsibility of the state is exceedingly wide, in Austria very narrow. In Germany, distinctions are made between the lawful and unlawful exercise of the public power, a special statute being a necessary con

1 Teissier, G., La responsibilité de la puissance publique, Paris, 1906; Sourdois, Jean, De l'évolution, du fondement et de l'étendue de la responsabilité de l'Etat, Bordeaux, 1908, ch. V. Tirard, Paul, De la responsabilité de la puissance publique, Paris, 1906, p. 171 et seq., gives an account of the recent decisions of the French Conseil d'Etat which indicate the new tendency to widen the sphere of state responsibility. See also Otto Gierke in 28 Deutscher Juristentag, I, 102 et seq.

2 Laferrière, op. cit., I, 26 et seq.