Custom-houses, or rather passes, have been established in Abyssinia on every spot where nature, in that mountainous country, has confined the road to some narrow defile, not to be avoided without an immense détour, if at all, and near some commanding elevation where a good look-out can be stationed, or perhaps at a brook fordable only at one spot; and as the different chiefs sometimes give orders on the sudden to allow no one to pass, great trouble ensues, not only to merchants, but to all wayfarers. Frequent quarrels and even deaths occur at these posts, always kept by armed men, and it requires no little temper and knowledge of the country to avoid these inconveniences, or to send messengers, &c., to any distance in safety.

A merchant starts from Massowah for Basso, the last mercantile station to the southward of Christian Abyssinia. He pays at Massowah the import or export duty to the Turkish governor; he must then engage a guide from the Shohos, an independent tribe inhabiting the hills near the coast, and in possession of the only passable roads, winding through defiles for 50 or 60 miles. According to the agreement made and his appearance, wealthy or otherwise, he may pay this guide from 10 dollars to half a dollar. Arriving then in Obeay's dominions, he will be stopped four or five times before he reaches Adowah, and on each occasion must arrange with those in charge of the tolls as he best can as regards payment, the amount being arbitrary, and the system, in fact, one of legalised plunder. On arriving at Adowah he pays certain more regulated duties to the Negadeh Ras of that town, a douceur, moreover, being expected, as the price of a friendly settlement of dues. After meeting the exactions of several minor posts, he will next have to pay at the town of Dobaruk, in the province of Waggera, duties on the same scale with those of Adowah, generally one dollar per mule-load of merchandise; and being then clear of the territories of Dejajmatch Obeay, enters those of Ras Ali, whose tolls commence at Gondar. Here the duties are nominally somewhat settled, though long disputes almost invariably occur; and, after three or four more detentions and payments on a smaller scale in Begemder, he passes the Nile, and arrives in the domains of the chiefs of Godjam or Damot. These may be in a state of entire rebellion or of sulky submission to the Ras. As in the latter case they pay him a fixed tribute, he does not interfere with their toll-levying, and the merchant must disburse at some eight or ten more stages of his journey ere he can reach "Basso."

A code of laws, called the "Feth Negust," said to have been compiled by the Council of Three Hundred in the earlier ages of the Church, and regarded originally as almost of equal authority with the Sacred Writings, is the guide of the Abyssinian chiefs in their decisions as judges. The twelve "licks" of Gondar originally formed the supreme court of justice, a court of final appeal, but the office ceased with the power of the emperors. The Feth Negust is

now expounded by some learned priest or scribe, and there are few in the country competent to the task. It is frequently consulted more after the fashion of the 'Sortes Virgilianæ,' the book being opened with much solemnity, and the first passage found that seems to bear upon the question being hastily dressed to suit the case in hand and present an aspect of oracular wisdom. In this light it is at least regarded by the uninformed multitude, that is, the whole nation, save the priesthood; and it is invariably set aside when the passions or whims of the presiding chief seem to require it.

On the accusation of any man in Abyssinia of any crime, he has the right to be heard in the first instance by his own judge, that is, either the chief of his village, or the master to whom he is attached for the time being, and to be forwarded to his residence, together with his accuser, by any authority to whom he shall appeal in the King's name.

Strangers may be judged by the district chief or the chief paramount, as they may choose. In every way the final right of appeal to the supreme ruler

exists; but the Ras not being strong enough at present to enforce this right in the case of Obeay, the decisions of that chief are considered final. The chiefs of the Agows of Lasta, called the Wagshum, and the chiefs of Kivora, on the borders of Sennaar, although feudally subject to the Ras, claim also this privilege of final judgment; but with these exceptions, the greatest chief may, on the complaint of a peasant, be summoned from any distance to appear at the Ras's court, and be obliged personally to answer the charge before the "Af-a-negus" (or "king's mouth "), an officer who hears all cases, and reports them concisely to the Ras for his verbal decision.

After an accusation, before the pleadings can commence, both parties must give security, approved of by the Af-a-negus. These bails or securities are answerable for the execution of the sentence, whatever it may be, or must suffer it themselves should the principals abscond. But at the end of the trial these first securities may declare off in case of doubting their principals, and others must be found, the only alternative to the convicted party being chains.

In all suits, civil or criminal, there is no prosecution by the Crown, and no police of any kind. The party aggrieved must lay the accusation, find out the aggressor, seize him, and convict him as he best may.

The Mosaic law of blood for blood being in full force, when a man is convicted of having killed another, whether purposely, by accident, or in selfdefence, he is handed over to the relatives of the deceased to be put to death by them, unless they can be persuaded to accept the blood-money, a similar sum being also paid into the royal treasury. It not unfrequently happens that no relation is found sufficiently near of kin to interfere in the matter, and the homicide then escapes scot-free. With the greater chiefs there is generally a desire to administer justice impartially, when not embarrassed by some political motive.

The power of the chief of northern Abyssinia dates nearly from the overthrow of the Ahtyee, or emperor of Gondar, by Ras Michael.

The present Ras, though no other chief is powerful enough to encounter him in the field, can only retain his title by the maintenance of a large army and constant wars against his rebellious vassals. Of all the inferior chiefs, whose title is Dejajmatch, the greatest is Dejajmatch Obeay, who, artly by the concurrence of the Ras, and more by subtlety, fortune, and the force of arms, governs with absolute sway the country from near the coast of the Red Sea to Gondar, and from Lasta to Sennaar-the only conditions that should prevent him from being regarded as an independent sovereign being his title of Dejajmatch, held from the Ras, and the payment of a tribute of money to him yearly as his feudal superior; otherwise the Ras does not interfere with his rule over these vast provinces, by which he commands every avenue to the interior of the country available for trade or policy.

The Ras has been engaged in the siege of a hill-fort in Godjam for four years; and another chief in rebellion, after gaining two battles, has pillaged Gondar, and rendered all communications with Godjam circuitous or dangerous.

It is now doubtful if the Dejajmatch Obeay will be faithful to his allegiance, or rebel in the hope of seizing the supreme power. In the latter case the whole land will bristle with arms, and all communication become impossible.

:

The boundaries of northern Abyssinia, at present defined as the districts inhabited by Christians, do not reach, by 90 or 100 miles, to the Red Sea at any point. This interval is occupied by various more savage tribes the Adaiel, the Azobo Gallas, the Areya Gallas, the Danakil, the Faltals, the Shoho, the Habab, and the Arab tribes of the Beni Amir. These have adopted, more or less strictly, the Mahometan faith, and are all, excepting the Gallas, wandering tribes, living by their flocks or their camels, governed by no master, and occupied with incessant feuds or combats.

Through the district occupied by the Shoho is the nearest and the most practicable route to Abyssinia. It is indeed the only one desirable, seeing that it bears directly on Massowah, the only good harbour, as I believe, in the Red Sea from Sowakin to the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.

These tribes of Shoho furnish guides to all passers for half a dollar each, and even conduct a party for the same sum. Rich native caravans pay according to their numbers, but always moderately, and a white man is of course considered fair booty, to be fleeced according to the extent of his ignorance or his fears. Though vexatious by their delays, they are never known to rob or ill-treat any voyager. They fulfil strictly their contract of safe conduct through their territories into Abyssinia, and no reasonable man can find fault with their moderate charges for this. It is true that occasionally the Faltal tribes make an incursion and plunder travellers not well-armed, in spite of the Shoho, watching their opportunity when the warriors of the latter tribe are engaged elsewhere; but this impugns not their good faith, having never been suspected of collusion.

They acknowledge no superior save the elders of their tribe in council, now that the Naibs of Arkiko are politically extinct.

The Turkish Government occupying the island of Massowah, their Pasha here claims also the coast for 50 or 60 miles inland, and forces various feeble tribes in those limits to pay tribute; but, in return, affords them no protection when devastated by the Shoho or the ruthless soldiery of Obeay. people are therefore sufficiently miserable and poor.

These

XVI. Explorations into the Interior of Africa. By the Rev. DAVID LIVINGSTON, LL.D. (Gold Medallist.)

(Continued from Vol. XXIV.)

Extracted from communications to the FOREIGN OFFICE from E. GABRIEL, Esq.; to the LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY; Sir RODERICK MURCHISON; Consul BRAND, and others.

Read, Jan. 8 and Nov. 12, 1855.

Pungo Andongo, 31st Dec., 1854. [THE letter marked No. 1. is a copy from memory chiefly of one I sent under date of August last, which, with a map of the country travelled over, I have lately heard, was lost in the destruction of the 'Forerunner' off Madeira. I had the fever so frequently after leaving Cassangé, that I could only take latitudes, inserting them and my route in pencil, and I promised to send a better map of Angola back from Cassangé on my return. This I shall do from the last point to which the postal arrangements extend. I have been detained some time here reproducing the letters lost in the 'Forerunner;' and I leave for Cassangé to-morrow morning.

I naturally feel some little regret at the loss of my map, for, believing it safe in your hands, I had been rather free in giving away latitudes, longitudes, and sketches of the country, some of which have been copied and sent to other parts, and I have some ambition, as I am the only one who ever made astronomical observations in this part of the world, that my own country should have the preference. At present I give the following

1. Journey from the Confluence of the Leeba and Leeambye to

Loanda.

To Sir Roderick Impey Murchison.

Pungo Andongo, Angola, 24th Dec., 1854. SIR,-I have been in the habit of addressing my letters for the Royal Geographical Society to the care of Lieutenant-Colonel

* Dr. Livingston's latest astronomical observations have since been received from Mr. Maclear, and will be given in the next Journal.-ED.

Steele, but, from some notices which I have seen in the newspapers since my arrival in Angola, I conclude that that gentleman has gone to the seat of war in the East. On that account, and knowing the interest which you take in such matters, I beg you will allow me the liberty of sending my communications on geography to you.

In my last letter, dated 20th September, 1853, I reported my return to the town of Sekeletu, on the river Chobé, after having visited the country of the Barotsé, and the river Leeambye or Zambesi as far N. as its confluence with the Leeba; I enclosed also a sketch of the river, with the latitudes and longitudes of the different points at which I had made observations; and mentioned my intention of proceeding to Loanda, in order, if possible, to open a path whereby commercial intercourse might be maintained with the west coast, as a means of ameliorating the condition of the people in the interior. The present communication is intended to convey a sketch of the journey from the point at which my last terminated-viz., the confluence of the Leeba and Leeambye, lat. 14° 11' 3" S., long. 23° 40′ 30′′ E.-to Loanda, the capital of the Portuguese possessions in Western Africa.

Sekeletu, who, by the abdication of his sister, now possesses the chieftainship, and the principal men of the tribe, entered cordially into the project of opening a new road for commercial purposes.

The commerce of the country over which Sekeletu now reigns, and that of numerous tribes situated more to the E., have been until lately completely neglected by Europeans. A large waterfall, called Mosioatunya, is conjectured to have prevented the Portuguese from ascending the Zambesi; and the Desert presented an insurmountable obstacle to commercial enterprise in the south. Accordingly, when we first visited the country we saw many instances in which valuable ivory had been allowed to rot with the other bones, just where the animal had fallen. Indeed, tusks went by the name of "mere bones" (marapohela-bones only); and, though the inhabitants soon acquired an idea of their superior value, they have not, up to the present time, received prices sufficient to stimulate them to proper efforts to procure large supplies. Elephants abound in the land, and there are many daring hunters; but a few pieces of cloth present only a very small indication that the tusks are of more value than the flesh. The elephants have always been killed more for food than for profitable barter; and other articles of trade, such as beeswax, which abounds in some parts of the country, are thrown aside as useless.

The common methods of killing elephants may be mentioned. The hunters having observed the path by which certain elephants or a herd go to water, select the highest overhanging trees as best adapted for their purpose. They are armed with spears having