b. Sometimes they are compounded of a noun and verb; as, Akićita-naźiŋ, Standing-soldier or Sentinel; Tatanka-nazin, Standing-buffalo; Mahpiya-mani, Walking-cloud; Wanmdi-okiya, One-who-talks-with-the-eagle; Malipiya-hdinape, Cloud-that-appears-again.

c. Sometimes they are formed of two verbs; as, Inyang-mani, One-who-walksrunning. In some instances a preposition is prefixed; as, Anawang-mani, Onewho-walks-as-he-gallops-on.

§ 71. The names of the women are formed in the same way, but generally have 'win' or 'winna,' female, added; as, Anpetu-sapa-win, Black-day-woman; Malpiwinna, Cloud-woman.

§ 72. The Dakotas have no family or surnames. But the children of a family have particular names which belong to them, in the order of their birth, up to the fifth child. These names are, for boys, Ćaské, Hepán, Hepí, Ćatáŋ, and Haké. For girls, they are, Winóna, Hápan, Hápistinna, Wánske, and Wiháke. Thus the first child, if a boy, is called Caské, if a girl, Winóna; the second, if a boy, is called Hepán, and if a girl, Hápaŋ, etc. If there are more than five children in the family, the others have no names of this kind.

§ 73. The names of certain family relations, both male and female, are presented in the following table:

The other relations, as, father, mother, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother, etc., are designated, both by men and women, by the same names.

CHAPTER IV.

ADJECTIVES.

§ 74. 1. Most adjectives in Dakota may be considered as primitive; as, ska, white, tanka, large, waste, good.

2. A few are formed from verbs by prefixing 'wa ;' as, onśida, to have mercy on one, waonśida, merciful; cantekiya, to love, waćantkiya, benevolent.

§ 75. Final 'a' or 'an' of many adjectives is changed into 'e' when followed by certain particles, as, hinća, do, kiŋ or ćiŋ, etc.: śića, bad, śiće hiŋća, very bad; wićaśta śiće ćin, the bad man.

Number.

76. Adjectives have three numbers, the singular, dual, and plural. 877. The dual is formed from the singular by prefixing or inserting 'un,' the pronoun of the first person plural; as, ksapa, wise; wićaśta uŋksapa, we two wise men; waoŋśida, merciful; waonśiunda, we two merciful ones.

§ 78. 1. The plural is formed by the addition of 'pi' to the singular; as, waśte, good; wićaśta wastepi, good men.

2. Another form of the plural which frequently occurs, especially in connexion with animals and inanimate objects, is made by a reduplication of one of the syllables.

a. Sometimes the first syllable reduplicates; as, ksapa, wise, plur. ksaksapa; tanka, great, plur. tanktanka.

b. In some cases the last syllable reduplicates; as, waste, good, plur. waśteśte. c. And sometimes a middle syllable is reduplicated; as, tankinyan, great or large, plur. tankinkinyan.

Comparison.

§ 79. Adjectives are not inflected to denote degrees of comparison, but are increased or diminished in signification by means of adverbs.

1. a. What may be called the comparative degree is formed by sanpa, more; as, waste, good, sanpa waste, more good or better. When the name of the person or thing, with which the comparison is made, immediately precedes, the preposition 'i' is employed to indicate the relation, and is prefixed to sanpa; as, wićaśta kiŋ de isanpa waste, this man is better than that. Sometimes'sam iyeya,' which may be translated more advanced, is used; as, sam iyeya waste, more advanced good or better.

It is difficult to translate 'iyeya' in this connexion, but it seems to convey the idea of passing on from one degree to another.

b. Often, too, comparison is made by saying that one is good and another is bad; as, de śića, he waste, this is bad, that is good, i. e. that is better than this.

c. To diminish the signification of adjectives, 'kitanna' is often used; as, taŋka, large, kitaŋna tanka, somewhat large, that is, not very large.

2. What may be called the superlative degree is formed by the use of 'nina,' 'hinća,' and 'iyotan ;' as, nina waste, or waste hinća, very good; iyotan waste, best.

1. The numbers from eleven to eighteen inclusive, are formed in two ways: a. By ake, again; as, ake waŋźidan, eleven; ake noŋpa, twelve; ake yamni, thirteen, etc. Written in full, these would be wikćemna ake waŋźidaŋ, ten again one; wikćemna ake noŋpa, ten again two, etc.

In counting, the Dakotas use their fingers, bending them down as they pass on, until they reach ten. They then turn down a little finger, to remind them that one ten is laid away, and commence again. When the second ten is counted, another finger goes down, and so on.

b. By saŋpa, more; as, wikćemna saŋpa waŋźidaŋ, ten more one, (10+ 1) or eleven; wikćemna saŋpa topa, (104) fourteen; wikćemna saŋpa śahdoğan, (10+8) eighteen.

2. Nineteen is formed by unma, the other; as, unma napćiŋwaŋka, the other nine.

3. a. Wikćemna nonpa is (10 × 2) twenty, and so with thirty, forty, etc. The numbers between these are formed in the same way as between eleven and eighteen ; as, wikćemna nonpa saŋpa wanźidan, or, wikćemna nonpa ake wanźidan, (10×2+1) twenty-one; wikćemna noŋpa saŋpa napćiŋwanka, (10 × 2+9) twenty-nine; wikćemna yamni saŋpa topa, (10 × 3+4) thirty-four; wikćemna zaptan saŋpa napćiŋ ́waŋka, (10 × 5 +9) fifty-nine. Over one hundred, numbers are still formed in the same way; as, opawinge sanpa wikćemna śakpe sanpa śakowiŋ, (100+ [10×6] +7) one hundred and sixty-seven; kektopawinge nonpa sanpa opawinġe zaptan sanpa wikćemna yamni sanpa śakpe, ([1000 × 2] + [100 × 5] + [10 × 3] + 6) two thousand five hundred and thirty-six.

b. The numbers between twenty and thirty, thirty and forty, etc., are occasionally expressed by placing an ordinal before the cardinal, which denotes that it is so many in such a ten; as, iyamni topa, four of the third (ten) i. e. twenty-four; itopa yamni, three of the fourth (ten) i. e. thirty-three.

§ 81. Numeral adjectives by reduplicating a syllable express the idea of two and two or by twos, three and three or by threes, etc.; as, nomnonpa, by twos; yamnimni, by threes; toptopa, by fours, etc.

(1.) Wanzikźi, the reduplicate of wanźi, properly means by ones, but is used to signify a few. (2.) Nonpa and topa are often contracted into nom and tom; and are generally reduplicated in this form; as, nomnom, by twos; tomtom, by fours.

(3.) Yamni, zaptan, śakowin, and wikćemna, reduplicate the last syllable; as, yamnimni, zaptanptan, śakowinwin, and wikćemnamna. The same is true of opawinge and kektopawinge; as, opawingege, by hundreds.

(4.) Napćinwanka and sahdogan reduplicate a middle syllable, as, napćin wangwanka, by nines, śahdohdogan, by eights.

§ 82. Waŋća, nonpa, yamni, etc., are also used for once, twice, thrice, etc. Nonpa nonpa hećen topa, twice two so four, that is, twice two are four. And ‘akihde' is sometimes used for this purpose; as, nonpa akihde nonpa, two times two.

§ 83 1. 'Dan' or 'na,' suffixed to numeral adjectives, is restrictive; as, yamni, three, yamnina, only three; zaptan, five, zaptanna, only five.

2. With monosyllabic words 'na' is doubled, as, nom, two, nomnana, only two; tom, four, tomnana, only four; hunk, a part, huŋħnana, only a part.

Ordinals.

§ 84. 1. The ordinal numbers, after tokaheya, first, are formed from cardinals by prefixing 'i,' 'ići,' and 'wići;' as, inoŋpa, ićinonpa, and wićinonpa, second; iyamni, ićiyamni, and wićiyamni, third; itopa, ićitopa, and wićitopa, fourth; iwikćemna, tenth, etc.

2. In like manner we have iake wanźi, eleventh; iake nonpa, twelfth ; iake yamni, thirteenth, etc.; iwikćemna noŋpa, twentieth; iopawinge, one hundredth, etc.

§ 85. When several numbers are used together, the last only has the ordinal form; as, wikćemna noŋpa saŋpa iyamni, twenty-third; opawinge saŋpa iake nonpa, hundred and twelfth.

CHAPTER V.

ADVERBS.

86. There are some adverbs, in very common use, whose derivation from other parts of speech is not now apparent, and which may therefore be considered as primitives; as, eća, when; kuya and kun, under, below; kitaŋna, a little, not much; nina and kiŋća, very; ohinni, always; sanpa, more; taŋkan, without, out of doors; wanna, now, etc.

§ 87. But adverbs in Dakota are, for the most part, derived from demonstrative pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs; and in some instances from other parts of speech.

1. Adverbs are formed from demonstrative pronouns, by adding 'han' and 'haŋ,' ‘ken' and ' ćen,' 'ketu' and 'ćetu,' 'en,' 'ki' and 'kiya,'' ¿i' and ‘ćiya.'

a. By adding 'han' and 'haŋ;' as, de, this, dehan, here, now; he, that, hehan, there, then; ka, that, kahan and kahaŋ, then, there, so far.

b. By adding 'ken' and 'ćen;' as, kaken, in this manner; eća, when, ećaken, whenever, always; dećen, thus; hećen, in that way.

c. By adding 'ketu' and 'ćetu;' as, kaketu, in that manner; dećetu, in this way; hećetu, so, thus.

6

d. By adding en,' in, in a contracted form; as, de, this, den, here; he, that, hen, there; ka, that, kan, yonder; tukte, which? tukten, where?

e. By adding 'ki' and 'ći,' 'kiya' and 'éiya;' as, ka, that, kaki and kakiya, there; de, this, deći and dećiya, here.

2. Adverbs are formed from adjectives, by adding 'ya;' as, waste, good, wasteya, well; sića, bad, sićaya, badly; tanka, great, tankaya, greatly, extensively.

3. a. Adverbs are formed from verbs, by adding 'yan;' as, iyuśkin, to rejoice, iyuśkinyan, rejoicingly, gladly; tanyan, well, may be from the obsolete verb 'tan' (as they still use atan, to regard, take care of); itoŋśni, to tell a lie, itonśniyan, falsely.

b. Some are formed by adding 'ya' alone; as, aokaga, to tell a falsehood about one, aokaliya, falsely.

c. In a few instances adverbs are formed from verbs by adding 'na;' as, inalini, to be in haste, inalinina, hastily, temporarily.

4. Adverbs are formed from other adverbs.

a. By adding 'tu;' as, dehan, now, dehantu, at this time; hehan, then, hehantu, at that time; tohan, when? tohantu, at what time?

b. Other forms are made by adding 'ya' to the preceding; as, dehantuya, thus, here; hehantuya, there; dećetuya, so; toketuya, in whatever way.

c. Others still are made by the further addition of 'ken;' as, dehantuyaken, toketuyaken. The meaning appears to be substantially the same after the addition of 'ken' as before.

d. Adverbs are formed from other adverbs by adding 'yan;' as, dehan, now, here, dehanyaŋ, to this time or place, so far; tohan, when? tohaŋyan, as long as, how long? ohinni, always, ohinniyan, for ever.

e. Adverbs are formed from other adverbs by adding 'tkiya ;' as, kun, below, kuŋtkiya, downwards; wankan, above, wankantkiya, upwards.

5. Some adverbs are formed from nouns.

a. By prefixing 'a' and taking the adverbial termination 'ya ;' as, paha, a hill, apahaya, hill-like, convexly; wanića, none, awanin and awaninya, in a destroying way.

b. By suffixingata' or 'yata,' etc.; as, he, a hill or ridge, heyata, back at the hill.

6. Adverbs are derived from prepositions.

a. By adding 'tu' or 'tuya;' as, mahen, in or within, mahentu or mahetu and mahetuya, inwardly.

b. By adding wapa;' as, ako, beyond, akowapa, onward; mahen, in, mahenwapa, inwardly.